Psychology

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Chapter 1:Introduction to the study of Behavioral Endocrinology
*behavioral endocrinology: study of the biosynthesis, storage, chemistry, and physiological function of hormones and with the cells of the endocrine glands and tissues that secrete them.
What the tissue of the body do after they are released.

• The study of the interaction b/w hormones and behavior. This interaction is bidirectional: hormones can affect behavior, and behavior can influence hormones concentration.

historical examples

• Early 1930-40 Berthold: He conducted a experiment about rooster castration.
• *demonstrated that a substance produced by the testes could travel through the bloodstream.
• *He look at developing roosters and how they become rooster.  Had 3 groups of 2 male chickens. Group 1 both chicks were castrated(testis were removed). Group 2- testes were removed and then re- implanted. Group 3 removed the testes and put it the chick chick and vice versa with no vascular or nervous connections. Results group became caponized -un masculinized chicks. Group 2- no blood supply attached these chicks still developed in to rooster. Group 3 also grew into roosters. Their have to be a chemical ( testosterone)  that influences development.
• Aristotle: notice they are sex differences. Description of castrated roosters and men. He knew if u castrated a rooster then they look and act different. There is a difference b/w when that rooster is castrated. If castrated as a chick it never get the rooster features. If castrated as an adult the rooster feature diminishes but doesn’t go away.

Eunuchs: are castrated males. If u castrate a boy certain characteristics never develop for ex. Thicken of the voice, growth of facial and bodily hair, impregnate women . European would have young boys castrated if they had a good singing voice to keep their high pitch voice to help their family.

Hormones: Global chemical physiological communication. They are chemical messengers-its the message
*they are released from the endocrine glands into the bloodstream. Because they are released into the bloodstream hormones could present a more global communications. hormones can affect the function of tissues in the body through the body’s circulatory system.
Gender: has a cultural, physiological and a biological factor
Sex: biological either male or female.
 Nervous systems acts as the main control systems:
 *Tightly integrated with the hypothalamus
 *Hormonal control evolutionarily conserved
 *Endocrine glands
Endocrine system: the cells put out these organic chemical call hormones and which are transcribed and regulate function. Hormones alter tissue function somehow.ex. how certain enzyme works, turn on and off enzyme.
*Major axes of feedback and regulation

Hypothalamus: reads what going on in the body then in turns it tells other glands in the body what to do.ex. how much hormones to release.
*control the pituary
*part of the brain and is primary composed of nervous tissue.
* the output are neurotransmitters
*Part of limbic system
*Regulation of motivational behaviors
*Behavioral processed ex. Sex, mood
*read the blood supply of different hormones and when the hormones reach a certain concentration in the blood the hypothalamus will stop the output of the releasing hormones or release a inhibiting hormone.
*major point of contact b/w the endocrine and the brain
Understand basic neuroscience:
Understand study of behavior:
*Is generally thought of as involving movement, but nearly any output isconsidered behavior.
*Description: this is needed before researchers can address questions of tis causation( what that behavior is, what is setting it and the consequesnce) question: “what causes animal A to emit behavior X?”(SABC).
*Prediction (hypothesis) and behavioral control( if I change this factor this behavior will or will not occur)
*Focus on simple behaviors(zebra pitches)- bird only sing after puberty and model systems
*Action (sensorimotor analysis)
*Consequence/how behavior is described - consequence- every beh. Have a consequence.( good/bad/ neutral)
- good beh. Most likely happens again
- bad beh. It will not happen again
- neutral beh. Have a probability to happen.
Tinbergen’s levels of analysis( study behavior in the view pt of biology): if u watch the natural behavior of an animal you should look for what causes that behavior whether it physical, environmental, anatomical etc how that behavior develop into the animal lifespan. How does that behavior help the animal survive. What evolutionary values does it have-how the animal pass off its gene/trait and reproduce to the nxt generation. All these thing are not separate but integrated.
* Four clauses is 1. What causes these changes(environmental)
Ontogeny- how that behavior help the animal survives(development) ex zebra finches sing bc this behavior increases the likelihood that they will reproduce by attracting females totheir territories.
- evolution- how is this behavior helping species get by ex. Finches sing bc they have evolved from a common ancestral species that sang.
- causation zebra finches sing because they are finches
Proximate( what is causing that behavior)
*Immediate cause/mechanism
*Physiological
*Behavioral – stimulus/response
Ultimate( where is that behavior come from or heading)
*Ontogenetic – developmental(ex-any chemical or component that affect the deve of animal before it's born.)
*Genetic
*Environmental
*Life experience/history
*Interaction of all of the above
relationship between hormones and behavior: How might hormones affect behavior?
* hormones do not cause behavioral changes. Hormones changes the probability that a particular behavior will be emitted in the appropriate situation.
*Input systems (sensory)
Gathering information - change mechanical info to chemical info for body to understand.
   Take info from the environment and change it for the nervous system to understand.
Ex. Pregnancy- smell becomes sensitive
*Integrative component (CNS, physiology)
*Output system (effector)
*Motor behavior
*chemical release/control
How might behavior effect hormones?
Sensorimotor stimulus → CNS response → neuroendocrine response
how is evidence in behavioral-hormonal research evaluated? (see pp20-21)
Principal actions of hormones
*Modulation of developmental processes
*Protein synthesis and tissue growth regulation
*Metabolic processes modulation
*Behavioral effects
*Feedback and balance, i.e. homeostasis

Chapter 2
Infra mediation:
When the cell produce their own molecules to change their own chemisty
metabotropic- have elected charged attached to them.
Ionotropic-
Change the genetic profile of the cell.
Intracrine: intracellular events
Autocrine: substances feedback to influence the same cells that secreted them.
-Paracrine
Secrete chemical that affect the adjacent cells.
Nxt to each other (adjacent cells)
Local cell to cell talk
Ex. Neuro cell communication
Extocrine-  chemical communication outside of the body.
Ex. In animals via hormones Messages
Endocrine gland:
Ductless
Release products into blood
secrete chemicals into the blood stream, where they may travel to distant target cells.
-Lipids
Steroids- hormones and neurotransmitters
Ring like struture
Vit. D to cholesterol to steroids
Steroids are Lipid based hormones
-eicosandoids
short lived
Involved in intracrine or paracrine mediation
Any drug or molecule have a physiological counterpart
-proteins
Change the cellular
To grow and divide growth factor will cause tissues to grow. Ex soft tissue to grow.
-amino acid
Ex. glutamate and GABA, epinephrine, histamine
Act as a signal molecules
- nucleic acids
Block adenosine production
- ions
Acts as signals
ATP, GTP, adenosine, guanosine
Ions & simple molecules
Cl-, Na+, PO4-3
NO, CO, CO2, O2
Hormones
-peptide is a short chain of amino acids. Protein based is a larger version of a peptide. Can fold over on itself and form a shape.
-monoamines- form from a amino acid anything with nitrogen and hydrogen.
Take a amino acid and change it around.
- lipophilic:  hormones are hydrophobic and do not readily dissolve in bloodstream
Associated with carrier protein
Peptides and monoamines are hydrophobic- do dissolve in blood stream.
Plasma is 99% water. Have carrier protein in order to be transported.
Hormones have 2 affects
-activational
- organizational- ex. As males go through puberty see effects of hormones beh. Just as muscle mass, hair etc.
Homeostasis- regulate body function to a stable state.
Limbic system- the 4 F- fight, flight, fuck, food
Regulation emotional beh. Such as aggression
Sexual regulation- social bonding and mammary gland control( milk)
Thirst, hunger- feeding and drinking beh.
Coordination with autonomic nervous system- BP, HR, temp, blood and volume
Calcium metabolism (cal citron)- do not require pit. To tell them what to do.
Pituitary gland:
*know as the master gland
* AKA Hypophysis
* Adenohypophysis = anterior pituitary (pars anterior)
Connected via blood vessel (hypothalamic – hypophyseal portal system)
Secretes tropic hormones- regulating hormones
* grandnotrophin:hormones that control the output of sex organs
Neurohypophysis = posterier pituitary (pars nervosa) extension of the hypothalamus
Connected via infudibular stalk and neurons originating in median eminance (from cells of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus)
*Releases Oxytocin and vasopressin-known as nonapeptide(group word meaing 9)
*releases dopamine
Parathyroid hormones causes the bone to give up its calcium and the bone becomes thinner as an result, this is bc the calcium in the blood is low. The calcitonin take up the excessive calcium but calcium into the bone.
Thyroid gland: adam apple. Derived form a single amino acid and not a peptide.
* puts out hormone-Thyronines (T4 & T3(fat soluble) -cause mitochondria to work harder, generate more ATP and more heat. By working more harder the mitochondria works more inefficiently. )
****major responsibility is to  control all metabolism. It control tissue and protein synthesis, fat metabolism and influence glucose metabolism so that the thyroid cause the muscle and the liver to turn their store product to turn into  glucose to put into the blood stream to make more energy available.
*Basal metabolic rate
*Macronutrient metabolism in energetic processes
*Protein synthesis
*Sensitivity to catecholamine
To much thyroid hormones- tissue begin to carbonize itself(influence protein levels) , very thin, large eyes etc
To little nervous tissue doesn’t work properly  - causes profound mental retardation
Thyroid hormones needs to be regulated. Thyroid hormones is synthesis in iodine.
4 little dots on the thyroid gland They put out a parathyroid hormones  calcitonin and causes bone to absorb to make bones more brittle.
different receptor types
thyroid are synthesis in the present of iodine.
Pancreas- both exocrine and endocrine function
Tightly regulates macronutrients metabolism
Via exocrine function ( pancreatic acini)- digestive enzymes to small intestines
Via endocrine function ( islets of langerhans)_ glucose metabolism and blood level.
Also protein and fat metabolism
A cell- glucagon
B cell- insulin- cause cells to take up glucose . Nervous system doesn't have glucose bc they produce their own glucose transporter.
O cell- somatostatin
PP cells- pancreatic polpeptide
The testes
Male gonad, sex
Testosterone
In mammals the sex chromosomes are designated x and y during sexual reproduction meosis happens- the paired chromosomes gets separated.
The leydig (chemical producing cell) where the testosterone is released. They produce steroid hormones under the influence of gonadotropins.
Sertoli cells produce the male game. also it provides nourishment to the developing sperm
Game is a sex cell. One pair in our sex chromosome has a pair designated for sex cells.
The ovaries

Cell create energy from ATP - it attaches one of the phosphate from the ATP to a protein and that would liberate a lot of energy. This process actually changes the shape of the protein so the protein can do some work. In biology everything work on enzymes. An enzyme that takes ATP and breaks off a phosphate from the ATP and conjugate it into a protein is call a Kinase. If an enzyme breaks off the phosphate from a protein is call a phosphatase ( detaches phosphate from a protein). If anything has a active site where a ligand can bind to it it's call a receptor. The tyrosine kinase has a active site where a hormone can come and bind to it. Once the hormone binds to the receptor the receptor  changes configuration and opens up an active site. That site is a kinase and will go and active another protein kinase by attaching ATP to it.  It turn on the protein by attaching ATP to it.
4 MAJOR TYPES OF HORMONES: protein and peptide_ both are hydrophilic, 2) steroid is derived from cholesterol 3)monoamines-derived fr a single amino acid 4) lipid based hormones-derived from lipids.
Quiz2- SRY is found on the Y chromosomes
External gentile deve requires the presence of reductase
In birds the heterogametic sex is female
Presence of MIH causes defeminization
how is evidence in behavioral-hormonal research evaluated?
You need to conduct a bioassay experiment which can inject different, known amounts of purified prolactin into pigeons. It measures the resulting height of the drop sac epithelial cells and generate dose-response curve.
Radioimmunoassay-  the principle of competitive binding of an antibody to it's antigen
GHIH- growth hormone inhibiting hormone-somatic fat blocks the pituitary gland from putting out growth hormone.
Pancreas -digestive enzyme  involvement. Puts out a bile.....stored in the the gallbladder and released into the intestine in to the respond of the gestational  fat
bile-

• G-protein receptors:
• amino acid: kinase receptors (tyrosine kinase)
• signal cascade and signal amplification
• steroid receptor and functions
• genomic events,
• Transduction: the sequence of events that begins with a hormone binding to tis receptor and ends with te ultimate response in a target cell.
• Transcriptional: during gene transcription, the strand of the double helix must be unraveled by the helicases. Transcription is bind to the promoter region of a gene, this allows an RNA polymerase to transcribe the DNA and produce mRNA. mRNA leave with the copy and turn it into a protein. translational, post-translational events

POMC:
Preprohormone: When the protein being synthesized is itself a protein hormone, he 1st product of translation is perprohormone. at the N-terimal end of the preprohormone is a certain amino acid sewuence called thesignal peptide. this is then seaparated then is further processed yielding prohormone.
testosterone :
aromatase: An enzyme involved in the formation of estrogens from androgens, in the granulosa cells of the ovary.
reductase:
estradiol:
estrogens:
DHT:
understand hormone regulation






Chapter 3
Sex Differences in Behavior
understand the concepts behind sex differences and sexual dimorphism
understand sex determination and sexual differentiation

• levels of sex determination
• ultimate causes, evolutionary viewpoint and genetic diversity, sexual selection

activation/organization
Mammalian sexual determination and differentiation; ontogeny of sex in mammals

• chromosomal sex
• germinal ridge, gonadal development
• anlagen, embryonic duct system, accessory sex organs
• MIH- The embryonic duct system that gives rise to the female accessory sex organ
• role of DHT and external genitalia, ontogeny of male external genitalia

masculinization, feminization, demasculinization, defeminization
Anomolies: hermaphrodism, androgen insensitivity (CAIS, PAIS), XXY, XYY, XO
Ontogeny of avian sex, WZ, ZZ
Know the different polymorphisms, alternative reproductive strategies
understand activational vs. organizational effects of hormones on behavior.

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