Global History 2
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Ethnic Conflicts in South Asia
1.
Kashmir has a large Muslim core, with an Indian district and a Buddhist district; some
Kashmiri Muslims would like to join Pakistan; India is firm in its desire to keep Kashmir; some
Kashmiris want their own separate state; there is no end in sight to this conflict
2.
The Northeast Fringe: this remote upland area lies in India’s extreme northeast; migrants to
this region from Bangladesh and other Indian provinces are viewed negatively by the indigenous
peoples; locals have attacked the immigrants, because they consider the immigrants a threat to both
their land and their cultural integrity
3.
Sri Lanka: religious and linguistic differences fuel ethnic conflict; in this case, the majority
Buddhist Sinhalese favor a unitary government, with some arguing that Sri Lanka should be a
Buddhist state; the minority Hindu Tamils support political and cultural autonomy; war erupted in
1983 when the “Tamil Tigers” attacked the Sri Lankan army; a solution is unlikely in the near term
The Maoist Challenge
As of 2006, a Maoist insurgency was growing in India, but had minimal effect
Nepalese Maoists have caused turmoil (including loss of life) in Nepal
International and Global Geopolitics
1.
Cold war between India and Pakistan has continued, and heated up in spring 2002; the
countries regard each other as enemies, and both have nuclear weapons; during the Cold War,
Pakistan was an ally of the U.S., while India remained neutral, with slight leanings toward the
U.S.S.R.; Pakistan also has built an alliance with China, from which it has obtained sophisticated
military equipment; China and India are engaged in a territorial dispute
2.
Pakistan has agreed to help the U.S. in the war against terrorism, especially in Afghanistan,
which is Pakistan’s next-door neighbor
3.
The India-Pakistan conflict has become more complex since the attacks on the World Trade
Center on September 11, 2001; before then, Pakistan supported the Taliban, while India provided
some help to the Northern Alliance; but since then, with Pakistan’s approval, the United States has
set up military bases in Afghanistan; India and Pakistan are moving to reduce tensions.
Economic and Social Development: Rapid Growth and Rampant Poverty
South Asia is a land of contradictions.
Along with Sub-Saharan Africa, it is the poorest world region. South Asia has a growing middle class,
but many social groups are virtually cut off from the processes of development. South Asia has
made some world-class scientific and technological achievements, but its illiteracy rate is among the
world’s highest; while South Asia’s high-tech businesses are well integrated into the global economy,
as a whole the region’s economy is self-contained and inward-looking
South Asian Poverty
1.
Two-thirds of Indians live on less than $2/day; 46% of children under age 3 are
undernourished
Bangladesh, Nepal even poorer
Geographies of Economic Development
1.
The Himalayan countries: Nepal and Bhutan largely subsistence-oriented; Bhutan has only
recently permitted tourists and TV to enter; Nepal is more integrated with Indian and world
economies, its tourist industry brings income, but also potential ecological damage
2.
Bangladesh: 40% live on less than $1/day; Bangladesh’s low wages make it internationally
competitive in textile and clothing manufacturing; remittances are the 2nd-largest source of income;
the Grameen Bank gives low-interest loans to poor women for small scale businesses; Grameen
Bank and its founder, Muhammed Yunus, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2006
3
Pakistan: has reasonably well-developed urban infrastructure; agriculture is productive and
the cotton-based textile industry is large and relatively successful but growth potential may be
limited; Pakistan is burdened by high military spending; the best farmlands are controlled by a small,
powerful landlord class that pays no taxes; but it is growing at a rapid pace
4.
Sri Lanka and the Maldives: measured by conventional criteria, Sri Lanka’s economy is the
second most developed in the region; its primary exports are textiles, rubber, and tea; by global
standards, Sri Lanka remains poor, and any progress is hampered by its ongoing civil war; the
Maldives is the most prosperous South Asian country based on per capita GNI, but its economy and
population are small; fishing and international tourism are the major industries
India’s lesser developed areas: India’s economy is the largest in the region; it is more
5.
prosperous in the west, less prosperous in the east, with a great deal of variation from state to state
6.
India’s centers of economic growth: Punjab and Haryana are showcases of the Green
Revolution, and their economies are based on agriculture; Gujarat and Maharashtra are noted for
their industrial and financial clout, and agricultural productivity; people from Gujarat are
disproportionally represented in the Indian diaspora (the migration of large numbers of Indians to
foreign countries), and their remittances bolster the local economy; Maharashtra viewed as India’s
economic pacesetter; Mumbai is a financial and film; India’s fast-growing high-tech center is in
Bangalore and Karnataka; India has been especially competitive in software development
Globalization and India’s Economic Future
1.
Indian economic system is a mix of socialism and capitalism, with widespread private
ownership, but government control of planning, resource allocation, and certain heavy industries
High trade barriers protect the economy from global competition
3.
Liberalization of economy began in early 1990s: economy was opened to imports and
multinational firms
4.
India’s future economic policies remain uncertain; in 2006, India’s economy was growing at
a rate of about 8% per year
Social Development
1.
Overall low levels of health and well-being exist in South Asia; there are also geographical
patterns, with better health and longer life expectancy and education levels in western India; the
State of Bihar is consistently on the bottom, while Punjab is consistently on top
2.
The educated south: Sri Lanka has higher health and education indicators than would be
expected of a developing country; Kerala (southwestern India) has best indicators of social
development in India
3.
The status of women: women in the Hindu tradition are forbidden from inheriting land;
widows may not remarry; many women leave their families shortly after puberty to join their
husband’s families; women still suffer discrimination: they have lower rates of literacy, and suffer
from differential neglect, which occurs when children of one sex (usually girls) receive poorer
nutrition and health care than the children of the other sex (usually boys); the excess of boys in India
suggests that many boys receive better treatment; reasons for differential neglect of girls: boys
remain with family even into adulthood, contributing to family wealth, while girls go to live with
their husband’s families; families must provide dowry for their daughters’ prospective husbands;
evidence suggests that the social position of women is improving
VII. Conclusion
South Asia’s size and growth rate have assured it a prominent role in discussions of world problems and
issues. It is poised to become the most populous region in the coming century, and feeding this burgeoning
population will pose a major challenge for this region. The geopolitics of the region cause much international
concern, particularly since two rivals in this region, India and Pakistan, have nuclear weapons. Other ethnic conflicts
are found throughout the region. Economic development in South Asia is highly variable. While one Indian state is
developing a strong computer hardware and software industry, other states are among the world’s poorest.
Bangladesh is developing a strong textile industry, while Nepal is opening its doors to tourists. Women in South Asia
continue to face many challenges, but there are bright spots, such as the efforts of Grameen Bank to help women
establish small-scale enterprises in Bangladesh. Much uncertainty remains about the direction of this region in the
coming decades.
CHAPTER 13 – Southeast Asia
Introduction
Southeast Asia is an excellent example of the promise and perils of late 20th century globalization.
Thoroughly plugged into global capitalism, this region experienced rapid economic growth and development in the
1980s, only to fall victim to a bust cycle in the middle and late 1990s. Southeast Asia is no stranger to the outside
world, having experienced colonial dominance and expansionist imperialism for many years. Troubled not only by
economic challenges, internal ethnic and social conflicts are also part of the mix in Southeast Asia. In spite of all
these challenges, the countries of this region have forged an important union, the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN), which offers great promise for promoting the self-determination of the region.
GEOG 150 – World Regional Geography – Final Exam Study Outline
Environmental Geography: A Once-Forested Region
The Tragedy of the Karen
1.
The Karen, a tribal people in Burma, had never been fully integrated into the Burmese
kingdom; when the British colonized Burma, 30% of the Karen converted to Christianity. As a result
of this relationship, the British gave many Karen people positions in the colonial government. The
Burmans (ethnic Burmese, and the majority in Burma) resented this favoritism. After the British left,
the Karen lost their favored position, and conflict between the Karen and Burmans ensued. The
Karen rebelled openly and established an insurgent state of their own. They supported their state
by smuggling goods between Thailand and Burma, and by mining gemstones in their region. By the
early 1990s, the Burmese army had overrun the Karen. The Burmese army was successful in part
because they were able to enlist Thailand’s assistance in preventing Karen soldiers from finding
sanctuary in Thailand.
2.
To get this agreement, Burma agreed to allow Thailand to have access to Burma’s valuable
teak forests; this agreement has resulted in pressure on the forests of Burma
The Deforestation of Southeast Asia
Globalization has had a profound effect on the environment of Southeast Asia; export-
1.
oriented logging has resulted in a loss of trees that far exceeds the loss either from indigenous
peoples or by colonizers
2.
Japan was the first country to globalize world forestry in the 1960s, but other Asian
countries (Taiwan, South Korea, Indonesia, Malaysia) have developed their own wood-products
firms
3.
Although countries such as Indonesia see the potential associated with clearing forest lands
for food production, agriculture and population growth are not the main causes of deforestation in
Southeast Asia; some logged-off lands are reforested
4.
Now most Southeast Asian countries have widely publicized bans on the export of raw logs,
and some (like Thailand) have banned forest logging altogether
5.
Malaysia has been the leading exporter of tropical hardwoods from Southeast Asia, with
60% of these logs going to Japan; Malaysia will be almost completely deforested in the near future
6.
Thailand cut more than 50% of its forests between 1960 and 1980; logging has been illegal
there since 1995; damage to the landscape has been severe
7.
Indonesia has two-thirds of the region’s forest areas, and about 10% of the world’s true
tropical rain forest; much of it has already been lost to logging
Global Warming and Southeast Asia
Most people and farms are along the coasts, which are vulnerable to rising sea levels
Monsoons could worsen, with higher rainfall and more flooding
Most countries of SE Asia ratified the Kyoto Protocol
Smoke and Air Pollution
Air pollution in this region is surprisingly strong
2.
Sources of air pollution: (1) urban smog in the region’s fast-growing cities, (2) smoke from
clearing forests by burning; (3) tinder-dry forests due to drought caused by El Niño; (4) the peat bogs
of Kalimantan dried out and burned for months
3.
Results: unhealthy air; lung cancer and pulmonary disease in this region kill at five times the
U.S. rate
Patterns of Physical Geography
1.
SE Asia is one of the world’s three main zones of tropical rain forest; this is a region of
diverse landforms, with a great deal of tectonic activity (both earthquakes and volcanoes)
2.
Mainland environments: mountains and lowlands dominated by rivers; mountains form the
northern boundary of this region; rugged terrain has resulted in sparse settlement; this region has
several large rivers (Mekong, Irrawaddy, Red River, and Chao Phraya)
The influence of the monsoon: almost all of mainland Southeast Asia lies in the tropical
3.
monsoon zone; characterized by a hot rainy season from May to October; rainfall totals may exceed
100 inches per year
4.
Insular environments of Southeast Asia form an archipelago (island) environment; Indonesia
has more than 13,000 islands, tectonic activity created a mountainous spine and left volcanic peaks;
Philippines has more than 7,000 islands, and includes active volcanoes; this region also includes the
world’s largest expanse of shallow ocean, covering the Sunda Shelf; the rich marine life resulted in
Southeast Asian peoples’ adopting maritime ways of life. Tsunamis are an issue here and in 2004, a
tsunami killed about 230,000 people
5.
Island climates: island climates are more complicated than those on the mainland because
of a more complex monsoon effect, the influence of Pacific typhoons, and the equatorial location;
typhoons (large tropical storms, similar to hurricanes, that form in the western Pacific Ocean); the
islands have very little seasonal variation in temperature and precipitation is year-round
Population and Settlement: Subsistence, Migration, Cities
Settlement in the region is relatively sparse (compared to East Asia and South Asia)
1.
areas
Migration to this region by sea has meant concentration of populations in deltas and coastal
Many favored lowlands have seen dramatic population growth in the past few decades
There has been a major rural-to-urban migration
Settlement and Agriculture
1.
Poor rain forest soils lead to sparse settlement; plant nutrients are locked up in the
vegetation, while soils lack nutrients, partly because the rain washes them away; shifting cultivation
is well adapted to this environment; volcanic soils are more fertile
2.
Swidden in the uplands (other names for swidden are shifting agriculture and “slash and
burn”): small plots of land are cut (often by hand), planted in indigenous subsistence crops; farmers
use the crops until fertility drops; the land reverts to woody vegetation and eventually return to
their original form; swidden is sustainable when populations are small and stable, and the land
available is large enough; this is a threatened way of life; when swidden is no longer possible, former
practitioners may turn to cash crops (including opium for the global market); the mountainous area
of Burma where opium is grown is known as the Golden Triangle
3.
Plantation agriculture began in Southeast Asia with European colonization; it is often located
on coasts because of the need to transport the product overseas; typical plantation products include
rice, rubber, cane sugar, tea, pineapple, and copra. In Southeast Asia, most plantation workers are
indigenous peoples from the highlands or contract laborers from India or China
4.
Rice in the lowlands: grown in commercial quantities for trade and export, along the
Irrawaddy River (Burma), Chao Phraya (Thailand), and Mekong (Vietnam and Cambodia)
Recent Demographic Change
1.
Southeast Asia does not have the overwhelming population pressures of East or South Asia,
so there is wide variation in relevant policies in this region
2.
Population contrasts: the Philippines have a relatively high fertility and growth rates, many
Roman Catholics; Laos (which is Buddhist) has high TFR (3.5), with little economic development;
Thailand, with a high level of economic development, has a TFR of 1.8 in part because the
government promoted family planning; Indonesia has the region’s largest population (243 million), is
still above replacement level, even though the government promotes family planning; Cambodia has
high fertility rate (3.0) and growth rate, and the lowest life expectancy (61) in the region as a result
of civil strife and violence
Growth and migration: Indonesia has had a policy of transmigration (relocation of people
3.
from one region to another within the same national territory) to move people from densely
populated Java to the outer islands, reduced since 2000
Urban Settlement
1.
The overall urbanization rate in Southeast Asia is less than 50%; still, cities in the region are
growing rapidly
2.
Primate cities (single, large urban settlements that overshadow all others) are common in
Southeast Asia; examples include Bangkok, Manila, Jakarta
3.
Thailand, Philippines, and Indonesia are all trying to encourage growth of secondary cities by
decentralizing economic functions
Page 31 of 42
4.
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, has received substantial government investment, and has become
a modern city of grandiose ambitions; when completed in 1996, Kuala Lumpur’s Petronas Towers
was the world’s tallest building.
5.
Singapore is a city-state, where space is at a premium; Singapore has no squatter
settlements, and most of its buildings are new, mostly high-rise
Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Meeting Ground of World Cultures
Southeast Asia has never been dominated by a single culture, but instead has been a meeting
ground for cultures from many regions
The Introduction and Spread of Major Cultural Traditions
1.
South Asian Influences include Hindus from India who came 2,000 years ago to Burma,
Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia; a second wave of South Asian religious
influence came in the form of Theravada Buddhism in the 13th century to Burma, Thailand, Laos,
and Cambodia
2.
Chinese influences: Vietnam was a province of China until around 1000; the presence of
Mahayana Buddhism and Confucianism are a reminder; during the 19th and 20th centuries, many
Chinese (mostly men) migrated to Southeast Asia; some married local women and established mixed
communities; in the 19th century, Chinese women began to migrate in large numbers, resulting in
ethnically distinct Chinese settlements; in many places in Southeast Asia, relationships between
Chinese minority and indigenous majority are strained, partly because many Chinese maintain their
Chinese citizenship, because they are relatively prosperous, or because they dominate local
economic activity
3.
The arrival of Islam occurred around 1200 C.E.; by 1650, Islam had mostly replaced Hinduism
in Malaysia and Indonesia (which is the world’s most populous Muslim country; 88% of its 243
million people are Muslim); the practice of Islam varies from country to country within the region,
from relaxed practice to rigid fundamentalism
4.
Christianity and tribal cultures: European missionaries came to Southeast Asia in the late
19th and early 20th centuries; Catholicism has taken root in Vietnam (under the French) and in the
Philippines (under the Spanish); converts to Christianity were more likely to have been practitioners
of animist religions (these focus worship on nature’s spirits and ancestors), rather than Hindus,
Buddhists, or Muslims
5.
Religious persecution: Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos adopted communism by 1975, and
discouraged religious practice; today Vietnam’s government is struggling against revival of faith in
the country
Geography of Language and Ethnicity: linguistic influences are many and complex
1.
The Austronesian languages: probably originated prehistorically in Taiwan; today most
insular (island) languages in Southeast Asia are in this family; the most common language in this
group is Malay, which is the lingua franca (an agreed-upon common language to facilitate
communication) of the insular realm; other languages in the group are Indonesian, Javanese,
Balinese, Sundanese, and Tagalog
2.
Tibeto-Burman languages include Burmese and Tai-Kadai Languages, originating in Southern
China
3.
Tai-Kadai languages are found in Thailand and Laos; most of these are spoken in small local
areas (sometimes isolated)
4.
Mon-Khmer languages: probably once covered virtually all of mainland Southeast Asia, and
involve two major languages: Vietnamese (the national language of Vietnam), and Khmer (the
national language of Cambodia)
Southeast Asian Culture in Global Context
1.
European colonization brought changes in economic and education systems; when
Southeast Asian people won their independence, some tried to isolate themselves from the global
system (e.g., Burma), while others were more receptive to outside influence (e.g., Philippines), and
still others criticize Western influences (e.g., Malaysia and Singapore)
English, the global language causes ambivalence: it is at once the language of questionable
2.
popular culture, and also the language of international business and politics
Nationalists in various countries promote their own languages
Singapore encourages the use of Mandarin Chinese
Geopolitical Framework: War, Ethnic Strife, and Regional Cooperation
ASEAN gives Southeast Asia a geopolitical regional coherence, but many states still struggle with
serious ethnic and regional tension; in 1999, Indonesia gave up control of the island of Timor
Before European Colonialism
1.
All the modern countries of mainland Southeast Asia existed before European colonization:
Cambodia came into being in the 12th century; Burma, Siam (Thailand), Vietnam (Annam) by the
1300s
On the islands of Southeast Asia, most societies were organized at the village level
The Colonial Era
1.
Portuguese arrived first around 1500, followed by the Spanish in the Philippines; then came
the Dutch (1600s); their goal was to trade in the exotic goods of the region
2.
By 1700, the Dutch dominated the region; the colonial relationships were these: (1) British in
Burma and Malaysia; (2) French in Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam; (3) Dutch in Indonesia; (4) Portuguese
in East Timor; (5) Spanish, and later the United States, in Philippines
3.
Organized resistance to occupation began in the 1920s; after WWII, most Southeast Asian
countries were granted their independence
The Vietnam War and Its Aftermath
French occupied Vietnam after WWII
2.
A communist resistance movement arose, led by Ho Chi Minh; France allowed this group to
establish a separatist government in the north; France fought against North Vietnam for 10 years,
then withdrew in defeat
3.
An international peace council divided Vietnam into two (like Korea): North Vietnam was
allied with U.S.S.R. and China; South Vietnam was allied with the United States
Fighting continued, as North Vietnam sought to reunite Vietnam
5.
Laos and Cambodia became involved: communist Pathet Lao challenged the central
government of Laos; communist Khmer Rouge gained influence in Cambodia
6.
United States began sending advisors to the region in the early 1960s, as The Domino Theory
provided the rationale (if one country went communist, others would also become communist—just
like dominoes); the logical conclusion of this theory is that eventually all of Southeast Asia would be
part of the Soviet Union-Communist China world
7.
U.S. began bombing in 1964, and began sending troops in 1969; by 1969, half-a-million U.S.
soldiers were in Vietnam, and casualties were high; U.S. troops began to withdraw in the early 1970s
Saigon, Vietnam, fell in 1975, and Vietnam reunited in 1976; many people fled the country
9.
In Cambodia, the Khmer Rouge installed one of the world’s most brutal regimes ever, led by
Pol Pot; city dwellers were forced into the countryside to become peasants, wealthy and highly
educated people were executed; millions of people lost their lives
10.
Eventually, both Cambodia and Laos established new governments, although they are not
true democracies, and the countries remain impoverished
Geopolitical Tensions in Contemporary Southeast Asia
Conflicts in Indonesia: Partial autonomy to Papua; immigration from Indonesia creates
1.
tensions; East Timor now has its independence; there are also several secessionist movements in
Indonesia; typically, the Indonesian government relies on repression to hold its fragmented state
together; in addition, some orthodox Muslims in Aceh region of Sumatra, Indonesia are calling for an
Islamic state
2.
Regional tensions in the Philippines: the Islamic southwest presents the greatest secessionist
challenge; tribal groups are rebelling in response to a proposed dam that would threaten their lands
and livelihoods
3.
Burma’s many problems: Burma is the most war-ravaged country of Southeast Asia; most of
the people who are rebelling want to maintain their cultural traditions, lands, and resources (e.g.,
the Karen); many insurgencies have been supported by opium and heroin trade
4.
Thailand’s Troubles: Thailand’s constitutional monarchy protects democracy and rule of law,
but mass protests caused resignation of a corrupt prime minister in 2006
International Dimensions of Southeast Asian Geopolitics
1.
Conflicts in the region have been reduced with the creation of ASEAN (Association of
Southeast Asian Nations)
2.
Border disputes: (1) Philippines claim Malaysian state of Sabah; (2) Malaysia interested in
Malay-speaking, Muslim region of Thailand
3.
The Spratly and Paracel islands are subject of territorial disputes by the following countries:
Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, China, and Taiwan
4.
Concern about China from the countries of Southeast Asia provides motivation for ASEAN
unity; ASEAN’s current mission is to facilitate regional political cooperation in order to control
(rather than be controlled by) external global forces
ASEAN +3 (China, Japan, and South Korea)
Economic and Social Development: The Roller-Coaster Ride of Economic Growth
Until the economic downturn of the 1990s, the economic progress in Southeast Asia was
considered a model of a new globalized capitalism
1.
Investment capital came from Japan, the U.S., and then from international investment
portfolios
Instability persists
Uneven Economic Development
1.
The Philippine decline: in the 1960s, the Philippines were the most highly developed
country in Southeast Asia; since the 1980s, the Philippines’ economy has been in decline; there are
several reasons for the decline: (1) corruption; (2) crony capitalism (occurs when the leader’s friends
are granted huge sectors of the economy, while those perceived as enemies have their property
expropriated); (3) kleptocracy: government of thieves; (4) as Philippines fell into downward
economic spiral, wealthy Filipinos invested their money elsewhere; (5) emigration of well-educated
Filipinos (including teachers) to take jobs elsewhere; the economy of the Philippines is recovering
2.
The regional hub, Singapore: Singapore began as an entrepôt port city (a place where goods
are imported, stored, and then shipped), but became the communications and financial hub of
Southeast Asia; Singapore had a relatively mild recession in the 1990s, but its economy is healthy
overall; Singapore’s government is repressive and generally undemocratic
3.
The Malaysian boom: Malaysia is not as prosperous as Singapore, but has had rapid
economic growth; the Malaysian economy is based on extraction of natural resources (hardwoods,
palm oil and rubber, tin), and manufacturing, especially in labor-intensive high-tech sectors;
Malaysia was hit hard by the Asian economic crisis of the late 90s; Malaysian leaders instituted
currency controls, and they seem to be working; in Malaysia, there are geographical and ethnic
disparities in economic opportunities; ethnic tensions (especially with minority Chinese) are an issue,
and Malaysia has instituted affirmative action for Bumiputra: “sons of the soil,” ethnic Malaysians
4.
Thailand’s ups and downs. Japanese firms helped fuel Thailand’s boom in the 1980s;
Thailand has a well-educated workforce, and it is politically stable, with a democratic government
and a free press; many people did not benefit from the boom; the historical core (Bangkok) certainly
benefited most; Lao-speaking peoples in the northeast were left out
5.
Unstable economic expansion in Indonesia: Indonesia’s economy began to expand in the
1970s, partly because of oil exports and logging; Indonesia continues to attract foreign investment
because of its low wages and abundant resources; the Indonesian government nurtured an
indigenous, technologically oriented business center; of all the countries of Southeast Asia,
Indonesia was hardest hit by the 1990s recession; Indonesia’s economic and social development are
uneven, with Jakarta and Sumatra doing well, while elsewhere, poverty abounds; improvements in
political stability helps
The Recent Rise of Vietnam: Vietnam is following the model of China’s development, and is
6.
experiencing an improvement in its economy. Vietnam’s economy combines free market capitalism
and communism, welcoming multinationals, and encouraging small entrepreneurs; Vietnam’s
economy grew 8%/year from 2006-2008.
7.
Cambodia is following Vietnam’s lead; oil and minerals discovered in 2000; tourism thriving
(Angkor Wat) but also bringing gambling and crime; FDI coming
8.
Persistent poverty in Laos, and East Timor; Laos pins hopes on hydropower, mining, tourism,
investment from China and Thailand; East Timor has weakest economy in SE Asia; recovering from
war; reached agreement with Australia to share revenues of offshore natural gas
9.
Burma’s troubled economy Burma has abundant natural resources (oil, minerals, water,
timber, fertile farmland), moderate population density, and reasonably well-educated people;
Burma’s economy has been stagnant since its independence (1948); Burma has a policy of “Buddhist
Socialism”; today political instability and human rights violations deters investment in Burma
Globalization and the Southeast Asian Economy
The economies of Southeast Asia are well integrated into the global economy
Export-based economy makes this region vulnerable to world economic disruptions
Issues of Social Development
1.
Generally higher levels of economic development correlate with higher levels of social
development
Singapore, Brunei lead in health and education
3.
Most governments in the region value education, so literacy rates are relatively high.
University and technical education are not always readily available in Southeast Asia, forcing many
to study abroad
VII. Conclusion
Southeast Asia is well integrated into the global economy. Although linguistic and ethnic differences exist
and sometimes cause conflict, the governments of this region have seen the value of unity, and have created ASEAN
(The Association of Southeast Asian Nations). Investment in the region fosters economic development.
Introduction
Oceania contains two distinctly different worlds.
Australia and New Zealand are culturally and economically linked with Europe, even though the
landforms are distinctly not European. The rest of the region (Oceania) consists of island chains
covering the South Pacific. This region is subdivided into three regions: Polynesia, Melanesia, and
Micronesia. Oceania is united by historical isolation, culture clashes, and a relatively new political
geography.
Australia and New Zealand dominate this region;
Australia has a huge, dry interior (the “outback”) that is thinly settled. New Zealand has mountains
that limit settlement there.
There are three main archipelagos (island groups) in Oceania:
Melanesia (“dark islands) is culturally complex; Polynesia (“many islands”) is linguistically unified;
Micronesia (“small islands”) includes microstates and Guam.
Environmental Geography: A Varied Natural and Human Habitat
Environments at Risk: this region faces challenges that include seismic hazards, periodic Australian
droughts, and tropical cyclones
1.
Global resource pressures: mining has had a negative impact on many parts of Australia and
Oceania, where semiarid regions are susceptible to metals pollution; deforestation has caused the
loss of vast stretches of eucalyptus woodlands to create pastures in Australia; elsewhere (e.g., Papua
New Guinea), logging pressures cause deforestation
2.
Global warming and rising sea levels: some researchers predict that global warming may
cause higher global temperatures to melt polar ice caps, which will in turn raise ocean levels and
drown many islands in Oceania; some islands at low elevations in this region are already
experiencing slight increases in water level and increased coastal erosion
3.
Exotic plants and animals (invasive species): exotic (non-native) animals and plants have
been introduced to the region, and they have had a detrimental effect on native animals; in
Australia, where the environment lacks the diseases and predators that keep rabbits in check
elsewhere, rabbits have reached plague proportions, as large pieces of land were stripped of
vegetation by the bunnies; sheep and goats have accelerated soil erosion and desertification; island
environments have also experienced problems after the introduction of exotic animals; for example,
the Moa (a bird larger than the ostrich) became extinct after Polynesian settlers to New Zealand
hunted the birds, burned their habitat, and brought (accidental) rats that ate the eggs of the Moa;
during the second wave of migration, European settlers brought non-native species that often
competed successfully with native species
Australian and New Zealand Environments
1.
Regional landforms, major landforms in Australia: (1) Western Plateau covers more than half
the country and geologically represents the remnants of a shield formation that once connected to
Antarctica; (2) the Interior Lowland Basins stretch north to south for 1,000 miles; most of the region
is a flat, featureless plain with dry lake beds and by stream valleys where water is rare; (3) Eastern
Highlands are located on the Pacific Rim coast, and include the narrow, highly settled coastal plain;
(4) Great Barrier Reef is underwater, off the coast of Queensland; it is the one of the world’s most
remarkable examples of coral reef building
Climate: the north has a monsoon climate with dry winters and wet summers, producing
2.
tropical woodlands, thorn forests mixed with open grasslands; Central Australia is dry, with little
rainfall (less than 1 inch per year), producing scrub vegetation; Southeastern Australia has year-
round rainfall averaging 40–60 inches per year producing forests along the coast; Southwestern
Australia Mediterranean climate, with dry winters and wetter summers, producing mallee-
eucalyptus woodland with little economic value
An unusual zoogeography: isolation and genetics created a mammal group in Australia based
3.
on marsupials; bird life is highly varied
New Zealand’s Varied Landscape
Landforms include numerous active volcanoes and geothermal features; and the Southern
1.
Alps
2.
Zoogeography: like Australia, New Zealand’s isolation produced unique flora and fauna; 85%
of New Zealand’s native trees and seed plants are found nowhere else on Earth; bats are the only
native mammal
3.
North Island environments: mainly subtropical, microclimatic variations are found on the
volcanic peaks; most of the flora has been replaced by introduced European species
4.
South Island environments are typical mid-latitude at the north end, while the southern end
experiences a winter chill; the west side of the Southern Alps are tropical rain forest, while the east
side is grassland
The Oceanic Realm
1.
Creating island landforms: Melanesia and New Zealand formed from continental rock; most
of the islands of Polynesia and Micronesia were formed by volcanic activity on the ocean floor with
no connection to larger landmasses; Hawaii is a high island (formed by larger active and recently
active volcanoes); the Hawaiian archipelago is also an example of a geological hot spot, where
GEOG 150 – World Regional Geography – Final Exam Study Outline
moving oceanic crust passes over a supply of magma, creating a chain of volcanic uplifts; low islands
are formed out of the eroded coral reef; when these islands form a ring around a shallow central
body of water, they form an atoll
2.
Pattern of climate: some islands have high rainfall and dense tropical forests; low-lying atolls
receive much less rain than the high islands, and sometimes experience water shortages; high
islands have lush tropical forests
Population and Settlement: A Diverse Cultural Landscape
Contemporary Population Patterns
1.
Australia: has 22 million people, it is highly urbanized, most people live in the subtropical
south and east; Aborigines (the indigenous people) live in the arid center
New Zealand has 4.3 million people, and 70% of them live on the North Island
3.
Oceania is overwhelmingly rural; the largest city is Honolulu, and its population is a result of
migration from the American mainland
Legacies of Human Occupancy
1.
Peopling the Pacific: 40,000 years ago, the ancestors of the Aborigines (native Australians)
came to the region by boat; Melanesia was settled 3,500 years ago by people who had perfected
long-distance sailing and navigation
2.
European colonization: European explorers “discovered” this region in 15th century;
Australia was established as a prison colony in 1788 and the British government, who expelled
Aboriginal peoples from the land, supported further migration; New Zealand was settled by whalers
and sealers, and Britain settled the region beginning in 1840; tensions between Maoris (native new
Zealanders), and British settlers led to wars from 1845–1870; initially, a powerful Hawaiian ruling
family prevented Euro-American claims to the islands, in 1898, Hawaii became a U.S. territory; other
parts of Oceania have had little European settlement
Modern Settlement Landscapes
1.
The urban transformation: urbanization began in Australia and New Zealand in the 20th
century; most urban areas have vibrant downtowns with low crime rates; every major urban area in
the region includes coastal features, waterfront districts, and harbors; urbanization elsewhere in
Oceania is different; often there is a lack of housing, street crime is prevalent, and alcoholism is a
problem; urban areas are growing rapidly through immigration from nearby rural areas and islands
2.
The rural scene: in Australia, sheep and cattle ranching are significant; some sugar cane and
truck farming occurs near Perth and in Murray Valley; viticulture (grape cultivation) is increasing
New Zealand’s Landscape: sheep ranching and dairying are important;
Rural Oceania, subsistence farming of taro, sweet potatoes, coconuts, and bananas occurs;
4.
cash crops such as coffee, cocoa, and sugar cane are also important
GEOG 150 – World Regional Geography – Final Exam Study Outline
Diverse Demographic Paths
1.
Australia and New Zealand had high population growth in the early part of the 20th century;
today, both countries have low birthrates; retirement communities and suburbs are growing, and
older industrial areas are in decline
2.
Oceania: small islands tend to have high population densities, compounded by migration to
urban areas
IV. Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Global Crossroads
Multicultural Australia
1.
Aboriginal imprint: currently, about 2% of Australia’s population are Aborigines, who
followed a hunting-gathering way of life for thousands of years; Europeans pushed Aborigines into
the arid central region of Australia; many Aborigines are employed in urban areas, Christianity is
their major religion, and only 13% speak their native language; Australia has programs in place to
preserve Aboriginal culture; today 25% of Australia’s people are foreign-born
2.
A land of immigrants: 70% of Australians are of Irish and British descent; Kanakas (laborers
from islands in Oceania such as the Solomons and New Hebrides) were imported to work on farms;
the “White Australia” policy limited immigration into Australia to Europe and North America until
1973; most current immigrants to Australia come from Asia; Australia’s “One Nation Party” wants to
restrict immigration into Australia
Cultural Patterns in New Zealand
European culture is dominant in the country
Maori make up 8% of the country, are found mainly on North Island, and are committed to
2.
preserving their culture; Maori is an official language of New Zealand
Asian immigrants now make up of 5% of New Zealand’s population
Movies made in New Zealand include the Lord of the Rings trilogy; and The Piano
The Mosaic of Pacific Cultures
1.
Language geography: most languages in the region are Austronesian; Papua New Guinea has
1,000 different languages, and holds some of the few remaining uncontacted peoples (cultural
groups that have yet to be “discovered” by the Western world)
2.
Village life: settlements (villages) in Melanesia usually have fewer than 500 people, and life
there revolves around farming; Polynesia has class-based societies; violent warfare was common
before the arrival of Europeans
External cultural influences: Europeans, Americans, and Asians influenced Hawaii, Guam,
3.
and Fiji; local languages are being supplanted by Pidgin English, languages formed from local
languages and English; indigenous religions have been replaced by the Christian religions of settlers;
in Melanesia, mergers of Christianity and animist religions have merged in the cargo cults (quasi-
Page 40 of 42
animist religions of Melanesia that originated with military cargo supply dumps during World War II);
tourism is a source of revenue for many Pacific islands, bringing more contact with outsiders
Geopolitical Framework: A Land of Changing Boundaries
Geopolitics in this region reflect a complex interplay of local, colonial-era, and global-scale forces
Roads to Independence
1.
Australia and New Zealand became independent in 1901 and 1907, and are members of
British Commonwealth; both countries are considering becoming republics
Japan, France, and the United States have all controlled territory in the region
In Oceania, former colonies gained their independence in the 1970s
New Zealand and France still control territory in the region
Persisting Geopolitical Tensions
1.
Native rights in Australia and New Zealand: Australia established “Aboriginal Reserves” in
Central Australia; passed the Native Title Bill, which paid Aborigines for land taken from them and
allows them to gain title to unclaimed land and to deal with mining companies; New Zealand’s Maori
claim land rights to much of North and South Islands and want name of country changed to
Aotearoa (Maori name that means “Land of the Long White Cloud”); there have been conflicts
between the Maori and the government on this issue
Conflicts in Oceania: in Papua New Guinea, local conflicts occur between different culture
2.
groups; natives of the island are concerned that government is exploiting abundant natural
resources on the island; in French Polynesia, an independence movement is underway; in the
Tuamotu Archipelago, local protests have opposed nuclear testing in the atolls
A Regional and Global Identity?
1.
Australia and New Zealand are the political leaders in the Pacific; both countries mediate
conflicts within the region and maintain links with both North America and Southeast Asia
France and the United States. Maintain close links with current and former colonies
Economic and Social Development: A Difficult Path to Paradise
The Australian and New Zealand Economies
1.
The Australian economy: Australia’s historical affluence was dependent on export of raw
materials (copper, iron ore, bauxite, nickel, gold, lead and zinc); Australia has little manufacturing
and high technology industry; tourism is becoming a growth industry; wealth is unevenly distributed
(concentrated in major cities, and higher poverty levels among Aborigines; their incomes are only
65% of the national average); tourism is increasing
2.
New Zealand’s economy: New Zealand relies on traditional agricultural exports for revenues;
in the 1990s, its economy stagnated, and it adopted drastic economic reforms; today it is one of the
world’s most market-oriented countries; it is not clear how successful this strategy will be
3.
Oceania’s economic diversity: Melanesia is the least developed and poorest region of
Oceania; most countries are dependent on exports of coffee, sugar cane, and coconut; in
Micronesia mining is important, and others support themselves with subsistence agriculture; in
Polynesia, some of the countries receive subsidies from France and the United States; in Hawaii,
French Polynesia, and Guam, tourism is important
The Global Economic Setting
1.
Oceania has reduced economic ties with North America and Asia, while Australia and New
Zealand are members of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Group—organized to form
economic ties throughout the region
Continuing Social Challenges
1.
Australia and New Zealand’s people are susceptible to most of the typical problems of the
industrialized world; cancer and heart disease are the leading causes of death, and alcoholism is a
persistent problem
2.
Aborigines and Maori have many more problems; schooling is irregular for many natives,
and discrimination against native populations is a continuing problem
3.
Papua New Guinea (PNG) has the weakest Social development indicators, including life
expectancy of only 59 years
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