Global World History
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Introduction
This region, which covers the central part of the Asian continent, includes the countries of Mongolia and
Afghanistan, along with six former republics of the former U.S.S.R. Historically, this region has played a significant
role in the evolution of Eurasia as a whole, but today is only weakly integrated into international trade networks.
This is the only world region that has no access to an ocean; it is landlocked. The physical geography of this region is
remarkable because of the presence of the Himalayas and other mountain chains as well as several deserts. Because
of the rugged terrain and dry climate, population density in this region is low. While the environmental unity of the
region is apparent, the cultural differences among the region’s residents are great. Oil is an important natural
resource in this region. Within recent memory, either the former U.S.S.R. or China has dominated virtually this
entire region. The U.S. currently has troops stationed in Afghanistan.
Environmental Geography: Steppes, Deserts, and Threatened Lakes
A.
B.
The shrinking Aral Sea, located on the border between Kazakstan and Uzbekistan (world’s fourth
largest lake)
1.
The Aral Sea is not a true sea, because it is not connected to an ocean; its sources of water
are two rivers that are heavily used for irrigation; as more and more water was diverted for crops,
less made its way to the Aral Sea and the Sea itself grew more salty because less fresh water flowed
into it. Salt from desiccated parts of the Aral Sea is blowing onto farmland, reducing crop yields.
2.
The destruction of the Aral Sea has led to economic and cultural damage and ecological
devastation; some formerly “seaside” villages are now as many as 40 miles from the Aral Sea;
fisheries have closed
3.
The northern remnant of the Aral Sea has seen some improvement, thanks to dikes and
dams financed by the World Bank and Kazakhstan; the southern remnant of the Aral Sea continues
to shrink and may disappear entirely by 2050.
Other Major Environmental Issues
1.
Much of Central Asia has a relatively clean environment, mostly because of the low
population density; industrial pollution tends to be a problem only in the region’s largest cities;
other problems in the region are typical of arid regions: (1) desertification, (2) salinization, (3)
desiccation (drying up of lakes and marshes)
2.
Desertification is a major concern; caused by overgrazing, poor farming practices; the Gobi
Desert is expanding; China is planting trees and grass, but it has been only partly successful
3.
Shrinking and expanding lakes: the Caspian is the world’s largest lake, about the size of
Montana (like the Aral, it isn’t connected to an ocean, so it isn’t a true sea) - redundant; its water
sources are the Ural and Volga Rivers; dams and irrigation divert water from the Caspian; its level
dropped to a low point in the 1970s; today it is eight feet higher than that; pollution from industry,
especially from oil drilling, is a problem
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4.
Dam building and water conflicts: 80% of the fresh water in the region is controlled by
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan; Tajikistan’s Rogun Dam threatens water supply downstream
5.
Central Asia’s Physical Regions
C.
1.
In general Central Asia has steppes (grassland plains) in the north, desert basins in the
southwest and central areas, and high plateaus and mountains in the south-center and southeast
2.
The Central Asian highlands: originated with collision of Indian subcontinent into Asian
mainland, creating the Himalayan Mountains (highest in the world), and the Karakorum, Pamir,
Hindu Kush, Kunlun Shan, and Tien Shan ranges; Tibetan Plateau stretches 1250 miles east-west, 750
miles north-south with an average height of 15,000 feet, near the maximum elevation at which
human life can exist; most rivers of South, Southeast, and East Asia (Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra,
Salween, Mekong, Yangtze, and Huang He) originate in the Tibetan Plateau, and nearby mountains;
most of Tibet is arid, with cold winters, and warm summers with chilly nights
3.
The plains and basins: west of the Tien Shan and Pamir Mountains are the Kara Kum (black
sand) and Kyzyl Kum (red sand) deserts; the Aral Sea is 135 feet above sea level; Caspian is 92 feet
BELOW sea level; this area has a continental climate, with hot, dry summers and winters averaging
well below freezing temperatures; temperatures more moderate along the Caspian; the region’s
eastern desert belt (Taklamakan) stretches 2000 miles from western China to Inner Mongolia;
rainfall increases toward the north of this area, as desert becomes steppe
D.
Global Warming and Central Asia
1.
2.
3.
E.
Climate
1.
2.
Population and Settlement: Densely Settled Oases Amid Vacant Lands
A.
Most of the region is sparsely populated
1.
2.
Many of the more favorable areas are populated by nomadic pastoralists (people who raise
livestock for subsistence purposes); sedentary people live in the river valleys
Salinization: accumulation of salt in the soil
Retreat of glaciers would reduce major source of fresh water
Already dry areas would become even drier, less suitable for farming
But Gobi Desert and Tibetan Plateau could see more precipitation
Dry region, with desert and steppe climates
Widespread arid conditions, with seasonal temperature variation
Many places are too arid or too high to support human life
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Highland Population and Subsistence Patterns
B.
1.
Harsh environment: mountain tundra has cold temperatures, scarce water, pronounced
ultraviolet radiation because of high elevation
2.
Most of the Tibetan Plateau supports only nomadic pastoralism; peoples here created
empires based on their military power; extremely low population densities; in the Pamir Range,
there are isolated valleys that support agriculture and intensive human settlement; transhumance:
seasonal movement of flocks from summer to winter pastures
C.
Lowland Population and Subsistence Patterns:
1.
Most desert dwellers live where the mountains meet the basins and plains, there is
adequate water, and there is no salt or alkali residue in the soils; intensive cultivation occurs amid
the alluvial fans (fan-shaped deposit of sediments dropped by streams flowing out of mountains) in
the area; the silty loess soils deposited by the winds in the area are fertile
2.
The Gobi Desert is one of Asia’s least populated areas; steppes of northern Central Asia
support nomadic pastoralism, but some of the area has been planted in wheat
Population Issues
D.
Central Asia is a low-density environment, but some portions are growing at a moderately
1.
rapid pace
2.
Han Chinese have been immigrating to Central Asia, while ethnic Russians have been
emigrating from Kazakstan
3.
Population statistics for the region are difficult to come by, but overall birthrates are near
the middle for developing countries, with higher rates in rural areas, lower in urban areas, and the
highest birth rates in Afghanistan
Urbanization in Central Asia
E.
1.
Older cities (i.e., Samarkand and Bukhara) known for lavish architecture, and located on
international overland trade routes; when sea trade replaced overland trade, these cities fell on hard
times
2.
3.
The government of Kazakstan has established Astana as a new capital city; overall the region
remains largely rural, with fewer than one-third living in cities
Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Meeting Ground of Different Traditions
Historical Overview: Changing Languages and Populations
A.
1.
Farming villages dating from the neolithic era (8000 BCE) have been discovered;
domestication of the horse made nomadic pastoralism possible; this livelihood dominated because
the mobility offered protection from enemies; the invention of guns offset the advantages of
nomadic pastoralism
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Cities’ construction under Russian and Chinese control reflect those more austere styles
– –
2.
Early languages in Central Asia are from the Indo-European family, related to Persian; this
region is considered the birthplace of Indo-European peoples; Altaic languages (Tungusic,
Mongolian, Turkish) replaced Indo-European about 200 years ago; Turks spread from what is now
Mongolia, then Mongols replaced Turks; by late 1200s, Mongol Empire was the largest the world
had seen
3.
Contemporary Linguistic and Ethnic Geography
B.
1.
Most peoples of Central Asia speak Mongolian or Turkic languages; a few indigenous Indo-
European languages are found in the southwest, while Tibetan is the main language of the plateau;
Russian is found in the west, Chinese is growing in importance in the east
2.
Tibetan: although it is part of the “Sino-Tibetan” language group, the linkage between
Chinese and Tibetan is unclear; about 1.5 of 2.6 million people in Tibet speak Tibetan; the other 1
million speak Chinese.
3.
Mongolian: about 5 million speak Mongolian; 90% of people in Mongolia speak the
language; in 1941, Mongolia adopted the Cyrillic script, but there are current efforts to revive the old
script
4.
Turkic languages are the most common in the region; spoken from Azerbaijan (west) to
China’s Xinjiang province (east); Uygurs comprised 80% of Xinjiang’s population in 1953, but
immigration by Han Chinese has caused the Uygurs to become a minority in their own homeland
now; other Turkic languages are Azeri, Uzbek, Turkmen, Kazak, Kyrgyz
Linguistic complexity in Tajikistan: Tajik is related to Persian; Azerbaijan also has a complex
5.
language mix that includes Turkish; Soviet policy supporting ethnic homogenization increased the
complexity of language in the region
Language and Ethnicity in Afghanistan
F.
1.
Afghanistan was never colonized; its boundaries are those of its original, premodern,
indigenous kingdom that emerged in the 1700s
2.
Two major language groups in Afghanistan: Pashtun (40%–60%), most of whom live along
the Pakistani border, and Dari (related to Persian), mostly living in western Afghan cities, central
mountains, and near the Tajikistan border; another 11% speak Turkic languages
3.
The ethnic diversity was not a problem for most of Afghanistan’s history, but became a
source of conflict in last part of 20th century
D.
Geography of Religion
1.
Because of this region’s location along early overland trade routes, many religions exist here:
Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and several minor religions
Tibet had a strong, unified kingdom by 700 AD, but its independence has been elusive
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2.
Islam in Central Asia: various groups interpret Islam differently; Pashtuns of Afghanistan
interpret Islam extremely strictly, based on their pre-Islamic customs; nomadic Kazaks interpret
Islam more loosely; most Muslims are Sunni, but Shi’ism is dominant among Hazeras (of central
Afghanistan) and the Azeris; both Russian and Chinese communists tried to suppress religions,
including Islam; interest in Islam is increasing as people reassert their indigenous identity; when the
Taliban controlled Afghanistan, they insisted that all aspects of society conform to its harsh version
of Islamic orthodoxy; in 2001, the Taliban destroyed all Buddhist statues in the country, including the
largest works of art; the Taliban was removed from power in 2001; Islamic fundamentalism still
present in Afghanistan, parts of Tajikistan, and Fergana Valley
3.
Tibetan (Lamaist) Buddhism: Mongolia and Tibet are mostly Buddhist; before the Chinese
dominated Tibet, the country was essentially a theocracy (religious state), with the Dalai Lama
enjoying political and religious authority; Lamaism is hierarchically organized and committed to
monasticism; Chinese invaded Tibet in 1959, and persecuted Lamaist Buddhism since, including
destruction of 6,000 monasteries and killing of thousands of monks; the Dalai Lama lives in exile in
India; Lamist Buddhism is experiencing a resurgence in Mongolia
Central Asian Culture in International and Global Context
E.
1.
Western Central Asia’s closest contact is Russia; Russian language and Cyrillic alphabet
spread throughout the region; demise of U.S.S.R. meant decline of Russian influence
2.
3.
skills
Geopolitical Framework: Political Reawakening
Central Asia has played a small role in global political affairs for several hundred years, although in
recent years, Russia and China have figured most prominently
A.
Eastern Central Asia’s closest contact is China
U.S. culture is growing; use of English is growing, especially among people with computer
Partitioning of the Steppes
B.
1.
Before 1500 and the invention of guns, Central Asia was a major power center, with mobile
horseback armies
2.
Manchu Dynasty of China occupied Mongolia, Xinjiang, Tibet, Tibet, and part of Kazakstan by
mid-1700s (Mongolia and Tibet declared independence in the 1900s)
3.
Russian Empire began conquests in this region in 1700s, finished just before the Soviet era
(1917–1991)
Central Asia under Communist Rule
C.
1.
Soviet Central Asia: Soviets imposed socialist economy in the region and encouraged Russian
immigration, forced indigenous peoples to write their languages in Arabic script; Soviets also
established union republics, which had a certain level of autonomy (see Chapter 9) in an effort to
encourage indigenous peoples to develop a Soviet identity, instead they encouraged nationalism
that eventually led to breakup of the U.S.S.R.
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2.
The Chinese geopolitical order: after emerging as a communist country in 1949, China
regained its dominance in Central Asia; China promised regional autonomy to Xinjiang to gain its
support; Tibet did not want to give up its independence; Chinese detailed a policy similar to Russian
union republics that was not carried out in practice; China encouraged immigration of Han Chinese
to the region—this caused additional problems
D.
Current Geopolitical Tension
1.
Former Soviet Union republics made mostly smooth transition after 1991, though some
ethnic tensions remain; non-Han Chinese peoples are unhappy with Chinese domination
2.
Independence in former Soviet lands: all six Central Asian union republics joined the
Commonwealth of Independent States; democracy has made less progress in Central Asia than in
other parts of the former U.S.S.R.; ethnic tensions remain in Kazakstan and Tajikistan; Armenia
invaded Azerbaijan after breakup of U.S.S.R
3.
Strife in western China: local opposition to Chinese rule grew in the 1990s; Chinese military
occupies Tibet (which has valuable mineral deposits and is the site of nuclear weapons tests) and
represses protest there; Uygur separatist movement is evolving; China believes all of its possessions
in Central Asia are integral to its national territory
4.
War in Afghanistan before 9/11/2001: began in 1978, when Soviet-supported military
“revolutionary council” seized power, leading to rebellion (mujahedeen, who were armed by
Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United States); Soviets withdrew in 1989, their puppet government
endured for several years; in 1995–1996, the Taliban came to power through conquest and installed
a repressive Islamist government; by late 1990s, most Afghans disillusioned with Taliban and its
severe restrictions on everyday life (especially for women)
Radical Islamic Fundamentalism: concerns about spread of Islamic fundamentalism; Islamic
5.
Movement in Uzbekistan (IMU)
International Dimensions of Central Asian Tension
E.
1.
Several countries vie for power and influence in Central Asia: China, Russia, Pakistan, Iran,
India, and the United States
2.
3.
Islamic fundamentalism: in the late 1990s, all the countries of Central Asia except Mongolia
expressed concern that a fundamentalist movement like the Taliban could destabilize their own
governments; after September 11, 2001, the United States, with British help, launched a major war
against the Taliban in Afghanistan; the Taliban quickly fell, and Afghans began to return to pre-
Taliban —and more moderate—daily life and Islamic practice; currently, there is an interim
government administration in Afghanistan, and efforts are underway to hold an election within a
reasonable period of time
4.
Formation of Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO): includes China, Russia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan; cooperate on security issues; in 2007 SCO signed agreement with
Revival of Islam in the region has caused international geopolitical impacts
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Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO), with Russia, Belarus, Armenia, Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan. Turkmenistan more isolated.
5.
The roles of Russia, Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey: Russia continues to have an interest in
Central Asia, especially in the countries that were former republics of the U.S.S.R.; Iran is a major
trading partner in this region and has strong cultural ties (although religious ties are weaker because
Iran’s Muslims are mostly Shi’a); Pakistan would like to increase its influence, and had been a strong
supporter of the Taliban before September 11, 2001; Turkey has close cultural and linguistic ties with
the region, and Turkey offers itself as an alternative model of a modern Muslim country; a pan-
Turkic (Turkestan) movement is a possibility
Economic and Social Development: Abundant Resources, Devastated Economies
Central Asia is one of the least prosperous regions in the world
A.
The Post-Communist Economies
B.
1.
2.
Kazakhstan has good agricultural potential, a small population, and could become a food
exporter; has deposits of oil and natural gas, and is exploring prospects for export; has signed
agreements with Western oil companies, but red tape is slowing progress
3.
Uzbekistan has region’s second-largest economy, and its economy has not declined as
sharply as those of its neighbors, partly because it maintains many Soviet-era policies (e.g., no
privatization); Uzbekistan is a major cotton exporter but environmental degradation threatens
cotton production; it has significant gold and natural gas deposits, and chemical and machinery
factories from Soviet era
4.
Kyrgyzstan moved aggressively to privatize state-run industries, but its economy is largely
agricultural and few of its industries are competitive; since independence, its economy has shrunk
by 50%; Kyrgyzstan has the largest supply of fresh water in the region
5.
Turkmenistan has a substantial agricultural base because of Soviet irrigation projects, and
exports cotton; it continues its state-run economy; Turkmenistan hopes development of oil and
natural gas fields will bring prosperity
6.
Azerbaijan has the region’s best-developed fossil-fuel industry; it has attracted much
international interest and investment, but its economy has been slow to respond, and Azerbaijan
remains a very poor country
7.
Tajikistan is the most economically troubled of the former Soviet republics, with per capita
GNI of only $280; Tajikistan is remote, with poor transportation links to the outside, most of them to
Russia; greater efficiency is needed; civil war has made matters worse
8.
Mongolia was a Soviet ally and was run by a communist party; Mongolia no longer receives
Russian foreign aid; its agricultural foundation is meager; and its traditional trade in livestock is not
very profitable; isolation is another problem
None of the countries in this region are considered prosperous
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C.
The Economy of Tibet and Xinjiang in Western China
1.
Chinese portions of this region have not suffered as much as former Soviet areas; although
China’s population is growing rather quickly overall, most growth is on the east coast
2.
Tibet is one of the world’s poorest places, partly because of its isolation; but many Tibetans
are able to cover most of their basic needs; immigration of Han Chinese to the region threaten to
upset local balance between human numbers and the environment in western China
3.
Xinjiang has tremendous mineral wealth; agriculture is productive; indigenous Muslims
resent influx of Han Chinese
4.
The misery of Afghanistan: Afghanistan is the poorest in the region, and has been at war
since 1978 (more than 30 years); it was poor before the war, and war has made poverty far worse;
few legitimate exports (animal products, hand-woven carpets, fruits, nuts, semiprecious gems); most
energy and consumer goods are imported; Afghanistan became a major exporter of opium (heroin)
during the 1990s, and now provides 90% of world’s illegal opium
D.
Central Asian Economies in Global Context
1.
Former Soviet republics maintain relations with Russia, and are establishing relationships
2.
with other partners (e.g., Iran, Pakistan, Turkey)
3.
4.
Fossil fuel reserves create a complex international economic environment, including a need
for new pipelines, but each prospective route has drawbacks; China is also interested in Central Asia
oil and gas
5.
E.
Social Development in Central Asia
1.
Social conditions and the status of women in Afghanistan: Afghanistan has suffered through
warfare since 1978; it has high infant and childhood mortality; average life expectancy is only 44
years; high rates of illiteracy; under Taliban control, women were prohibited from working outside
the home, attending school, and often from obtaining medical care; there is little improvement in
women’s status; a 2009 law gave husbands legal control of their wives’ bodies
2.
Social conditions in the former Soviet republics: women in these republics have a higher
social position than Afghan women, largely because of Soviet policies; compared to other parts of
the region, the socioeconomic indicators are the most favorable in the region; Eastern China is
improving, but Chinese territories in Central Asia (the western part of the country) may not benefit;
60% of non-Han people of Xinjiang are illiterate; statistics on social conditions in Western China are
hard to find
Afghanistan firmly embedded in world economy (weapons and drugs)
U.S. and other Western countries interested in the region’s oil and natural gas
Improvements in transportation, other infrastructure are crucial
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Conclusions
Dominated for many years by Russia and China, this region is only now emerging as a separate entity. It is a
region with rugged terrain and a historically pastoral society. Today the presence of fossil fuels is generating
worldwide interest in the region. This is a region that is experiencing difficult times, owing largely to the collapse of
political and economic systems at the beginning of the 1990s. As well, warfare and other armed conflicts have
damaged the economy of the states of this region, especially Afghanistan, which has been embroiled in war since the
1980s. Afghanistan has emerged as a focus of U.S. and world interest since September 2001.
CHAPTER 11 – East Asia
Introduction
East Asia is the world’s most populous region. This region exhibits a historical pattern of cultural unity and
periods of isolationism. China is both the oldest culture in East Asia as well as the oldest continuous national culture
in the world. Japan is a much newer state, but since its inception, the rivalry between it and China has been a
recurring regional theme. This region has experienced colonization, and in the 20th century has seen both internal
and international conflict. Economically this region includes one of the world’s wealthiest countries (Japan) but also
includes extreme poverty.
Environmental Geography: Resource Pressures in a Crowded Land
A.
B.
General Description
1.
East Asia’s environmental problems are unusually severe because of: (1) large population,
(2) rapid industrialization, (3) unique physical geography
2.
The wealthier countries (such as Japan) have invested in environmental protection; other
countries (including China) do not have the resources for environmental protection
Flooding, Dam Building, and Related Issues in China: China’s Yangtze (or Chang Jiang) River is an
important feature, and is now subject to environmental controversy
1.
The Three Gorges controversy: the Chinese government wants to control the Yangtze for
two reasons, to (1) prevent flooding and (2) generate electricity; Three Gorges Dam is now under
construction to achieve these goals; this will be the world’s largest hydroelectric dam, and will
displace between 1.2–1.9 million people (largest forced resettlement for a single project in history)
and cost $25 billion; the dam will threaten several endangered species (including the Yangtze River
dolphin); the project is so environmentally destructive, World Bank withdrew support; private
funding (from China and the United States) will fill the gap
2.
Flooding in Northern China: a deforested region, it has suffered from drought and flood; the
Huang He has the worst floods and carries a huge sediment load (the amount of suspended clay, silt
and sand in water); it is the world’s muddiest river; the Huang He’s deposition of soils during flood
cycles has created the North China Plain
3.
Erosion on the Loess Plateau; located to the west of the North China Plain, erosion from the
Loess Plateau is the source of Huang He’s sediment deposits; erosion has reduced farmland on the
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Loess Plateau; efforts to stop the erosion have been ineffective, and many people are migrating
from the region
C.
Other East Asian Environmental Problems
1.
Forests and deforestation: most of uplands of China and South Korea support only grass,
meager shrub, and stunted trees; China’s forestry practices have not been environmentally sound;
China has a severe shortage of forest resources and imports lumber, paper pulp
2.
Mounting pollution: as China’s industrial base expands, water pollution and toxic-waste
dumping are becoming more serious problems; according to WHO, air pollution kills 656,000 people
and polluted drinking water kills 95,000 each year in China
3.
Environmental issues in Japan: Japan is densely settled; this has some benefits, including
more efficient public transit; in the past, Japan suffered pollution, and several toxic-waste disasters
that killed thousands of people; these disasters led to strict air and water pollution laws; Japan (like
other countries) practices pollution exporting (relocating dirtier factories to other countries)
Global warming and East Asia
D.
China’s carbon emissions are rising, and surpassed U.S. emissions in 2007; staple crop production in
China could decline as much as 37%; China working toward cleaner energy sources; Japan, South
Korea, Taiwan are relatively clean
East Asia’s Physical Geography
E.
1.
East Asia is in the same latitudinal range as the United States; lies at the intersection of three
tectonic plates and is geologically active
“Pacific Ring of Fire,” earthquakes and volcanic eruptions frequent; more common in Japan,
2.
more deadly in China; May 2008 Sichuan earthquake killed 70K, left 4 million homeless in China
3.
Japan’s physical environment: Japan is comprised of four major islands; its climate is
temperate, although the south is subtropical, and the north is almost subarctic; the Pacific coast of
Japan is subject to typhoons (hurricanes); Japan has a rugged terrain, with mountains over some 85
% of its land area; because of a favorable climate and a long history of forest conservation, Japan is
the world’s second most heavily forested industrialized country
4.
Taiwan’s environment: about the size of Maryland; the central and eastern regions are
rugged and mountainous; the west is dominated by alluvial plains; Taiwan straddles the Tropic of
Cancer and has a mild winter climate; it is subject to typhoons in early autumn
5.
Chinese environments: Southern China has rugged mountains and hills interspersed with
lowland basins; south of the Yangtze Valley, the mountains are higher but still interspersed with
alluvial lowlands; north of the Yangtze Valley, the climate is colder and drier than to the south;
summer rainfall is plentiful, except at the edge of the Gobi Desert; the North China Plain is cold and
dry in winter and hot and humid in summer; parts of this area are threatened by desertification; the
Loess Plateau is a fairly rough upland of moderate elevation and uncertain precipitation; Manchuria
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is dominated by broad lowlands sandwiched between mountains, and has harsh winters and warm,
moist summers
6.
Taiwan’s environment: central, eastern regions rugged and mountainous; west dominated
by alluvial plain; mild winters; extensive forests
7.
Korean landscapes: Korea is a peninsula, partly cut off from Manchuria by rugged mountains
and sizable rivers; Korea itself is mountainous with scattered alluvial basins; the north has abundant
mineral deposits, and forest and hydroelectric resources; large portions of South Korea suffered
deforestation
Population and Settlement: A Realm of Crowded Lowland Basins
A.
East Asia and South Asia are the most densely populated regions on Earth
1.
2.
rate)
B.
Japanese Settlement and Agricultural Patterns (127 million people)
1.
2.
Japan’s agricultural lands: mostly in coastal plains and interior basins; Japan’s most
important crops are rice, vegetables, and fruit
3.
Settlement patterns: all Japanese cities are located in the same lowlands that support
Japan’s farms; Tokyo, Osaka, Nagoya are all at the center of three largest plains; density is high—876
people/mi2 (compared to United States at 72/ mi2)
Settlement and Agricultural Patterns in China, Taiwan, and Korea
C.
1.
Taiwan, Korea are urban; China is mostly rural (63%); China’s cities are fairly evenly
distributed in China’s plains and valley
2.
China’s agricultural regions: southern and central China’s population is centralized in
lowlands, where summer rice and winter barley alternate, and there are sometimes three crops per
year; North China Plain is one of the most anthropogenic landscape (one that has been heavily
transformed by humans); Manchuria is thoroughly settled, but is less crowded than other parts of
China and produces a surplus of food; the Loess Plateau is arid, exhibits erosion, and is thinly settled
by people who grow wheat and millet at subsistence levels; housing in the Loess Plateau includes
underground houses that are cool in summer, warm in winter, but may collapse during earthquakes
3.
Settlement and agricultural patterns in Korea and Taiwan: South Korea is densely settled at
1265 people/mi2, more than Japan (22.7 million in North Korea where corn dominates, 48.7 million
in South Korea, where rice prevails); Taiwan is even more densely settled (1633 people/mi2, total
population of 23 million) with most living in lowlands on the north and west coasts in an area that
contains large cities, factories, and lush farms
The region’s population growth rate has dropped dramatically since the 1970s
Japan faces population loss, with an aging population and fewer young people (low birth
Japan is highly urbanized; agriculture shares limited lowlands with cities and suburbs
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D.
East Asian Agriculture and Resource Procurement in Global Context
1.
Agriculture productive, but does not produce enough to feed large, densely settled
population
2.
The global dimensions of Japanese agriculture and forestry: Japan is one of the world’s
largest food importers (meat, wheat for bread and noodles and feed for livestock from the U.S.,
Canada, Australia; soybeans from U.S., Brazil; farm-raised seafood from Southeast Asia and Latin
America), but is self-sufficient in rice; Japan also imports lumber and pulp (U.S., Southeast Asia, Latin
America), energy, and minerals; because Japan’s industry produces valuable items for export, it can
afford to purchase these imports
3.
The global dimensions of Chinese Resource Demand: China began importing food in 1990s;
China is purchasing energy and mineral resources for its development, investing in Africa
E.
Urbanization in East Asia
1.
East Asia had a well-developed system of cities early on, but remained largely rural at the
end of WWII
2.
Chinese cities: China’s traditional were designed according to strict geometrical principles,
with a uniform structure, surrounded by defensive walls and horizontal, low building; when
Europeans colonized China, they took existing port cities and constructed Western-style buildings
and modern business districts; when communists came to power in 1948, colonial city Shanghai was
the world’s second-largest city and an example of Western decadence to be milked for taxes that
could be invested elsewhere; today Shanghai remains an important Chinese city, second to Beijing;
Beijing, China’s capital, was reshaped when communists came to power; some important historical
districts survived (e.g., Forbidden City); because of China’s indigenous heritage of urbanism and
socialist planning under the communists, China’s urban system is balanced, with large cities evenly
spaced across the inhabited areas, and no city overshadowing all others
3.
City systems of Japan and South Korea: urban primacy is evident in South Korea (Seoul);
Japan exhibits superconurbation: megalopolis, a huge coalesced metropolitan area; Japanese cities
are mostly new, since most pre-modern and historical buildings were made of wood and were
destroyed by bombs or fire in WWII
Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Confucian Realm?
East Asian commonalties go back to ancient Chinese civilization, about 4,000 years ago, remaining
relatively isolated and self-contained until the 1800s
A.
Unifying Cultural Characteristics
B.
1.
Religious and philosophical beliefs of Buddhism and Confucianism have shaped both
individual beliefs and social and political structures
2.
The Chinese writing system: based on ideographic writing, where each symbol (called an
ideograph or character) represents primarily an idea rather than a sound; there are thousands of
characters representing ideas used in the language; written and spoken language are largely
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separate; the major disadvantage of ideographic writing is that the large number of symbols makes
it difficult to learn; the major advantage is that two literate people who understand the ideographs
can read any language that shares the same symbols; Chinese ideographs spread to Japan (with
major modifications), and Korea and Vietnam (which later switched to an alphabet system)
3.
Korea: in the 1400s, Korea adopted an alphabet system to improve literacy and differentiate
Korean culture from Chinese
Japanese modifications: major grammatical differences between Japanese and Chinese
4.
made use of symbols (or kanji, as the Japanese calls them) awkward; the Japanese developed
hiragana (a unique quasi-alphabet, called a syllabary, in which each symbol represents a distinct
syllable or combination of a consonant and vowel sound); because of lingering similarities between
written Chinese and Japanese, many literate Japanese people can read Chinese; Japanese can also
be written using the Roman alphabet (the alphabet you’re reading right now, also called romanji in
Japanese)
5.
The Confucian legacy: Confucianism refers to the philosophy (NOT a religion) of Confucius; it
is important throughout East Asia, but more so in China and Korea; in the sixth century B.C.,
Confucius stressed (1) deference to legitimate authority; (2) need for authority to be responsible and
benevolent (emperor could be replaced if he failed to fulfill duties); (3) a patriarchal family system
where children obey and respect elders (especially older males); (4) need for a well-rounded and
broadly humanistic education; (5) value of meritocracy in which people should be judged on their
behavior and education, not their family connections, which led to selection of high officials of
imperial China (Mandarins) based on competitive exams; of course, usually only the wealthy could
afford the education that would lead to success on exams; Confucianism held that the emperor was
an almost godlike father figure for the entire country
6.
The modern role of Confucian ideas: old conventional wisdom—Confucianism’s
conservatism and respect for tradition and authority—caused East Asia to be economically
backward; new conventional wisdom: Confucianism’s respect for education and social stability gave
East Asia a tremendous advantage in international competition and helps explain the region’s strong
economic growth after WWII
C.
Religious Unity and Diversity in East Asia
Mahayana Buddhism: provides East Asia’s most important culturally unifying beliefs;
1.
stresses the human soul’s quest to escape an endless cycle of rebirths and reach nirvana (or total
enlightenment and union with the divine cosmic principle); founded in India around 600 B.C., now
widespread in East Asia; Mahayana Buddhism is nonexclusive, allowing people to follow it while
professing belief in another faith; variations include Japanese Zen, which demands that followers
engage in “mind emptying”; at various times, Buddhists have been persecuted in East Asia because
the religion originated outside the region
2.
Shinto (Japan): began as an animistic worship of nature spirits, but now is a subtle set of
beliefs about harmony of nature and humanity; Shinto is a place- and nature-centered religion that
considers certain places sacred (e.g., Mt. Fuji)
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3.
Taoism and other Chinese belief systems: stresses the importance of spiritual harmony and
the pursuit of a balanced life, it is indirectly associated with feng shui (or geomancy ) which is the
Chinese and Korean practice of designing buildings in accordance with spiritual power that some
believe courses through the local topography; other traditional religions focus on unique attributes
of particular places (particularlism), but these religions are usually practiced only locally
4.
Minority religions: Protestant Christianity is growing in Korea and possibly in China; China
has large populations of Muslims (called Hui) in northwest China, in Yunan province (south-central
border) and in scattered villages in nearly every province of China
5.
Secularism in East Asia: East Asia is one of the most secular regions on earth; in Japan,
religion is not very important; Confucianism is a philosophy, NOT a religion; Marxist philosophy in
China suppressed religious practice there; but as enforcement has eased, religious expression is
returning; this is not the case in North Korea, which still rigidly enforces orthodox Marxism
(communism)
D.
Linguistic and Ethnic Diversity in East Asia
1.
While written, ideograph-based language may unify the region, spoken language is very
different
2.
Language and national identity in Japan: Japanese is the only member of its language group;
Japanese are mostly homogeneous and generally view themselves as a unified people; at one time,
there were two distinct groups (Japanese in the south and Ainu in the north), and the Japanese
drove out most Ainu
Minority groups in Japan: there are small differences in Japanese dialects; about 700,000
3.
ethnic Koreans may suffer discrimination in Japan and are rarely able to obtain Japanese citizenship;
since the 1980s, immigrants have come to Japan, most from poorer Asian countries, but few become
permanent residents, let alone citizens; Burakamin, Japan’s indigenous outcast group whose
ancestors worked in “polluting” industries (like leathercraft), once faced discrimination and remain
among the poorest and least educated people in Japan
4.
Language and identity in Korea: Koreans are largely homogeneous, but there is a strong
sense of regional identity that traces its roots to medieval kingdoms of the country; many Koreans
live in China, Kazakhstan, and continue to migrate to the United States, Canada, Australia, and New
Zealand
5.
Language and ethnicity among the Han Chinese: Han Chinese form the vast majority of
people who have long been incorporated into Chinese cultural and political systems, and whose
language is expressed in the Chinese writing system, though they do not all speak the same
language; the Hakka, who speak a southern Chinese language, are sometimes considered not to be a
true Han Chinese; Hakka fled northern China 1,000 years ago to southern China, where they grow
crops and work as loggers, stonecutters, or metal workers; many Hakka consider themselves Han;
Chinese language is tonal (word meaning changes according to the pitch in which a person says it)
6.
The non-Han peoples: tribal groups live in more remote upland areas of China; tribal implies
a group of people with a traditional social order based on self-governing village community; many of
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them once had their own kingdoms but are now subject to Chinese state; the land area of these
people has diminished over time; in Guangxi, most people speak languages in the Tai-Kadai family
(Guangxi is an autonomous region, designed to allow non-Han peoples to experience “socialist
modernization” at a different pace from the rest of China)
7.
Language and ethnicity in Taiwan: tribal peoples speak languages related to those of
Indonesia; Han Chinese migrated to Taiwan around 16th century and their language evolved into
Taiwanese; Nationalist Chinese speaking Mandarin migrated to Taiwan in 1949; tension resulted
between the two language groups
East Asian Cultures in Global Context
E.
1.
2.
The globalized fringe: found in large cities, includes western influences such as English
language studies and college study abroad, Internet usage; the contributions of this fringe to global
culture include Hong Kong action films, Japanese dominance in electronics, videogames, and the
auto industry; Japanese ultra-nationalists call for their fellow citizens to resist Western decadence
and retain traditions of the samurai (the warrior class of pre-modern Japan), while others worry that
Japan is too insular
3.
The Chinese heartland: China has historically been self-sufficient and insular; major
influences have been traditional Chinese society and communism in the last half of the 1900s;
opening of China in 1970s and 80s has increased the prominence of the southern coast, and allowed
the reemergence of regional and local identities
Geopolitical Framework and Its Evolution: The Imperial Legacies of China and
Japan
A key feature of East Asia’s political history is the centrality of China, and Japan’s ability to remain
outside China’s reach
A.
Tension exists between internal orientation and tendencies toward cosmopolitanism
1.
China’s view had two categories: places were either part of the Chinese empire, or totally
outside it, as barbarians
2.
B.
The Evolution of China
1.
Chinese culture hearth (1800 B.C.) was North China Plain and the Loess Plateau; China was
ruled by a series of dynasties (families) from 219 B.C. until 1912, controlling roughly the same
territory; China ruled regions to its west, but never incorporated them into China; China tried to
conquer Korea, but Korea retained its freedom by paying tribute and acknowledging Chinese
supremacy; for most of the past 2000 years, China was the wealthiest and most powerful state on
the planet; the only real threat came from Mongolia and Manchuria; often conquering armies
adopted Chinese customs in order to govern the far more numerous Han people
2.
The Manchu Ch’ing Dynasty: the last of China’s dynasties, ruling from 1644–1912; it
functioned well until the middle 1800s; then European (especially British), later Japanese forces
There is a long-term rivalry between China and Japan
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began to dominate; under the Manchu Dynasty, China had its largest territorial extent, and was at its
most powerful
3.
The modern era: Chinese Empire was in decline in the 19th century, as it failed to keep pace
with technological and economic progress of Europe; initially, Chinese leaders did not perceive a
threat from European merchants on the Chinese coast; when Europeans found the price of Chinese
silks too high and saw that Chinese did not desire the products they had for sale, the British began to
sell opium in China; China wanted to eliminate opium, and battled England in two “opium wars” to
achieve this objective, but lost; as British dominance increased, political unrest occurred and
eventually toppled the Manchu Dynasty in 1911; from then until after WWII, nationalists and
communists competed for control of China; at the end of WWII, communists gained control, pushing
the nationalists to Taiwan
B.
The Rise of Japan
1.
Japan emerged as a unified state more than 2000 years later than China, during the seventh
century; between 1000 A.D. and 1580 A.D., Japan was separated into many mutually antagonistic
feudal realms
2.
The closing and opening of Japan: in early 1600s, Japan reunited by armies of the Tokugawa
Shogunate (a shogun is a military leader who theoretically remains under the emperor, but who
really holds political power); until the 1850s, Japan traded only with China, Russia, and the Dutch; in
1853, U.S. gunboats in Tokyo Bay demanded access to Japan; Japan repelled them, but then
modernized its economic, administrative, and military systems to protect itself in the future; this
modernization was called the Meiji Restoration, and was ultimately very successful
The Japanese Empire: fueled by the Meiji Restoration, Japan developed a silk industry for
3.
export in order to raise money to purchase modern equipment; Japan also set on a course of
expansionism to meet the challenge of its day; Japan took control of Hokkaido, Kuril, and Sakhalin
islands, Taiwan; gained influence in northern China, and annexed Korea in 1910; Japan was allied to
Great Britain, France, and the United States in WWI, and won Germany’s Micronesian colonies; in
the 1930s, Japan occupied Manchuria, the North China Plain and coastal cities of Southern China; in
1941, Japan decided to destroy the U.S. naval fleet in the Pacific Ocean in order to clear the way for
conquest of resource-rich Southeast Asia, which would unite East and Southeast Asia in a “Greater
East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere,” ruled by Japan and keep out United States and Europe; Japanese
were sometimes brutal in their treatment of Chinese and Koreans; ultimately, Japan was stopped
(WWII)
Postwar Geopolitics
C.
1.
2.
Japan’s revival: after WWII, Japan retained control of its own four islands and some other
minor islands; after losing its possessions, Japan was forced to rely on trade to rebuild its economy
and infrastructure; although Japan’s post-war constitution required that it use the U.S. military
rather than one of its own, slowly it has been rebuilding its military
With its defeat in WWII, Japan lost its colonial empire, but Japan has bounced back
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3.
The division of Korea: U.S.S.R and the U.S. divided Korea after WWII; land north of the 38th
parallel went to U.S.S.R., land south of the 38th parallel went to the U.S., creating two separate
regimes; North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950; U.S. aided the South, China helped the North;
the war ended in stalemate, still divided, but there are efforts to reconcile; North Korea may not be
living up to its commitments, so reunification is questionable; South Korea’s economy has grown and
developed
4.
The division of China: conflict that arose in China after the decline of the Manchu Dynasty in
1911 was resolved in 1949 when the communists won and forced the nationalists to flee to Taiwan;
mainland China is now called “People’s Republic of China”; Beijing still claims China, and vows to
reclaim it, while Taiwan maintains that it is the true government of China; the United States
recognized Taiwan as the legitimate government in the 1950s and 1960s, then in the 1970s,
recognized People’s Republic of China; many Taiwanese would like to declare independence, but if it
does so, China has threatened to invade it and take it back by force; in 2001 both China and Taiwan
were admitted to the World Trade Organization
5.
The Chinese territorial domain: today China controls Tibet, Xinjiang (which local people call
“Eastern Turkestan”), and Inner Mongolia; China also has territorial conflicts with Russia and India;
also, Hong Kong, which was controlled by the British, reverted to Chinese control in 1997, and
Macau (a Portuguese colony) reverted to Chinese control in 1999
D.
Global Dimensions of East Asian Geopolitics
1.
East Asia was caught up in the Cold War as China and North Korea were seen as friends of
the Soviet Union, while Japan, Taiwan, and South Korea were friends of the U.S.; this is no longer the
case
2.
Relations between the U.S. and China have been strained, partly because the U.S. has called
attention to human rights violations in China, and criticized China’s occupation of Tibet and its trade
practices; but since September 11, China and has endorsed U.S. anti-terrorism initiatives. China is
becoming a major force in global politics
Economic and Social Development: An Emerging Core of the Global Economy
A.
Economic and social development in East Asia varies from country to country
Japan’s Economy and Society
B.
1.
Japan was the world’s economic pacesetter in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s but slumped the
1990s, rebounded, hit again in 2008; even so, it is still the world’s second largest economic power
2.
Japan became a major exporter in the 1950s, starting with inexpensive consumer goods
(toys, clothing), and moving on to more sophisticated products (e.g., electronics and cars); in the
1990s, Japan’s inflated real estate market collapsed, causing a bank crisis; Japan began a
government spending program to try to alleviate the problem, which created deficits; Japan remains
a world leader, and is also the world’s biggest creditor nation
3.
Japan’s boom and bust: the central government of Japan plays a much larger role in the
country’s economy than occurs in the U.S., and groups of companies in the same or related
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industries (keiretsu) are intertwined, and would be considered as cartels (which are illegal) if they
were in the U.S.; advantages of the Japanese system: supports stability, promotes long-term
planning, and minimizes lay-offs; disadvantages: reduces flexibility, causes higher consumer prices,
and low corporate profits; has done nothing to improve Japanese agricultural efficiency
4.
Living standards and social conditions in Japan: Japan had higher GNP than the United States
in 1999, but living standards are slightly lower than in the United States because of higher prices for
housing and food; unemployment in Japan is lower, and there is no extreme poverty, but
professional and managerial jobs are noted for their long hours and high stress; crime rates are low;
Japan’s literacy, infant mortality, and average life expectancy are better than those in the U.S.
5.
Women in Japanese society: career opportunities for women are limited; women are
delaying marriage; and low fertility rates threaten to cause population decline in Japan
C.
The Newly Industrialized Countries (South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong)
1.
The rise of South Korea: in the 1960s, the government established a program of export-led
economic growth that led to a transition from inexpensive consumer goods to heavy industrial
products to high-tech equipment; South Korea has invested in its educational system
2.
Contemporary South Korea: in the 1960s and 70s, South Korea’s government was repressive;
freedom came in the 1980s; in the 1990s, scandal and corruption in government and business
caused political turmoil; economic difficulties plague South Korea, and government and economic
reforms may be needed
3.
Taiwan and Hong Kong: Taiwan’s economy is organized around small and mid-sized family
farms which makes the economy more flexible and agile, while making it difficult to enter industries
that require much capital; Taiwan was not strongly affected by the “Asian crisis” in the economy of
the late 1990s; Hong Kong has a laissez-faire economic system (complete market freedom without
government control); Hong Kong specializes in business services, banking, telecommunications, and
entertainment
Chinese Development
D.
1.
China under communism: China nationalized its industry after 1949; the “Great Leap
Forward” of the late 1950s used small-scale village workshops to produce large quantities of iron,
causing peasants to melt down their farm tools to meet unreasonable quotas and contribute large
proportions of their crops to the state, resulting in famine, with as many as 20 million people
starving to death; in the 1960s, the “Cultural Revolution” mobilized young people to eliminate any
remaining vestiges of capitalism; many well-educated people were sent to rural villages for
“reeducation” through hard physical labor, while others were killed, devastating the economy
2.
Toward a post-communist economy: leader Mao Zedong died in 1976, ushering in more
pragmatic leaders who have fostered somewhat closer Chinese ties with the world economy; while
no longer exclusively communist (socialist), China is not truly capitalist either; China still operates
most heavy industries, and controls the economy
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E.
– –
3.
Industrial reform: China created Special Economic Zones (SEZ) (areas where foreign
investments are welcome and state interference minimal); China’s economy is growing at about 10%
per year; it generates large trade surpluses, especially with the United States; one of the world’s
major trading nations in 1990s; China joined the WTO in 2001
4.
Social and regional differentiation: China’s reforms have resulted in social and regional
differentiation (occurs when certain groups of people, and certain parts of the country, prosper
while others falter)
5.
China’s booming coastal region: the greatest economic growth in China occurs in coastal
cities and Beijing (Guangdong and Fujian)
6.
Interior and northern China: Manchuria is a rust belt (a zone of decaying factories), but
remains relatively prosperous because of its fertile soils; many interior provinces are experiencing
economic decline and outmigration; rapid and uneven economic growth has caused problems (e.g.,
inflation, government corruption, rising crime, and organized crime)
Social conditions in China: China made progress in several areas (health and education) but
regional disparities continue; literacy rates rising because 97% of children attend elementary
school
1.
China’s population quandary: China has 1.3 billion people, concentrated in a few areas; in
the 1980s, China instituted a one-child policy, which was successful in reducing total fertility rate to
1.8; the policy, coupled with a strong preference for male children, has had negative unintended
consequences; among the extreme measures some people have taken to ensure a baby boy are (1)
gender-selective abortion, (2) kidnapping a baby boy, (3) abandonment of baby girls, (4) female
infanticide, all resulting in an imbalance between the sexes (a higher than expected number of boys)
2.
The position of women: women have traditionally had low status in China; communists and
nationalists alike worked to improve the status of women; female participation in the labor force has
increased, but few women have power either in business or in government
Conclusions
East Asia has close cultural and historical bonds. China, the world’s oldest continuous culture, has played a
key role in East Asia, and its rivalry with Japan has been especially relevant in the recent past. The desire of many
non-Han peoples in China for independence, economic disparities among the regions of China, along with a growing
demand for democracy and freedom of expression, present a challenge to the ruling Communists over the coming
years. Japan’s recent economic difficulties, along with those of Taiwan and South Korea, also suggest an uncertainty
in the coming years. Still, it is likely that this region will continue to play a key role in the economy and politics of the
global system for the foreseeable future.
CHAPTER 12 – South Asia
Introduction
South Asia is the world’s second most populous region. The population in this region is continuing to grow,
and there are concerns about the ability of food production to keep pace. South Asia experienced British colonialism
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for several centuries. Since achieving independence in 1947, the two largest countries in the region, India and
Pakistan, have been embroiled in conflict. The fact that these countries possess nuclear weapons is a serious
concern not just in the region, but globally as well. Economically, this region is one of the world’s poorest; it is not
well connected with the global economy. South Asia is often called the Indian subcontinent
Environmental Geography: Diverse Landscapes, from Tropical Islands to
Mountain Rim
A.
New highway project to connect the four largest cities (New Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai) in India will
improve development, but is causing religious and environmental conflicts
B.
Building the Quadrilateral Highway
C.
D.
Environmental Issues in South Asia
Large populations, pollution associated with early stages of industrialization, and environmental
disasters contribute to environmental problems
1.
1984 explosion at Dow Chemical’s Bhopal fertilizer plant killed about 2,500 immediately, and
20,000 or more later
2.
Natural hazards in Bangladesh: rapid population growth has caused people to move to
regions affected by monsoon-related floods, putting them in harm’s way
Forests and deforestation: vast areas in this region have been deforested to make room for
3.
agriculture, cities, or industries; many villages have a shortage of fuel wood for household cooking;
the Chipko movement is a women’s protest movement against deforestation
South Asia’s Monsoon Climates
1.
Monsoon: the distinct seasonal change between wet and dry periods, generally
accompanied by wind; South Asia has a warm, rainy summer monsoon (June–October) and a cold,
dry winter monsoon (November–February)
2.
The presence of the mountains results in orographic rainfall associated with monsoons in
this region; orographic precipitation: precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, fog, dew, etc.) that is
dependent on the existence of a mountain range; in orographic precipitation, (1) breezes blowing
from the ocean to the land carry moisture; (2) as the moist air rises up the mountainside, it cools and
releases precipitation; (3) eventually, all the moisture is released; (4) the breeze—now dry—
continues over the mountain; (5) the sheltered or lee side of the mountain is usually very dry; this
dry area is called a rain shadow, and experiences a rain shadow effect
Global Warming and South Asia
Flooding, especially in Bangladesh and the Maldives; 7 million could lose homes
1.
Glaciers that feed Pakistan’s rivers could disappear by 2035
2.
3.
Agriculture threatened by disappearance of glacier-fed rivers; higher temperatures could
threaten crops
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Economic development at risk
4.
Physical Subregions of South Asia
E.
1.
Mountains of the north: dominated by Himalayas, Karakorum, and Arakan Yoma Mountains;
this region was created by the collision of two tectonic plates
2.
Indus-Ganges-Brahmaputra River Lowlands: created by two major river systems that have
carried sediments from eroded mountains and built vast alluvial plains; soil here is fertile and easily
farmed; this region is densely settled; Indus River is the largest in the region; the Ganges River is a
transportation corridor, and is also considered sacred
3.
Peninsular India: this is the elevated Deccan Plateau; soils are not especially fertile except in
Maharashtra state, where basaltic lava flows have produced rich soils; water supply is a problem;
proposed dams threaten to displace more than 100,000 people; the Ghat Mountains (Western and
Eastern) are in this region
4.
The southern islands: Sri Lanka has a tropical climate and picturesque mountains; the
Maldives is a chain of 1200-plus islands with a combined land area of about 116 square miles; the
islands are flat, low coral atolls
Population and Settlement: The Demographic Dilemma
A.
India has almost 1.2 billion people; Pakistan has 180 million; and Bangladesh has 162 million;
many people are malnourished
Family planning varies from country to country in South Asia
B.
1.
India has had family planning policies in place for 40 years; total fertility rate dropped from 6
in the 1950s to an average of 2.7 today; in places where women are better educated, birth rates are
lower; sterilization is an important family planning strategy; preference for male children causes
problems similar to those in China
2.
The Pakistan government’s official position is that the birthrate is too high (TFR=4), but
Pakistan has no effective, coordinated family planning program; less than 20% of women use birth
control
3.
Bangladesh has made significant progress in family planning; its TFR dropped from 6.3 in
1975 to 2.5 in 2009; more than 50% of married women use oral contraception; government strongly
supports family planning and has implemented a woman-to-woman information-sharing strategy
that is proving to be effective; there is no coercion; (both Pakistan and Bangladesh are Muslim)
C.
Migration and the Settlement Landscape
1.
South Asia is largely rural; however, migration to cities is growing as mechanization of
agriculture causes unemployment or underemployment
2.
Four areas within South Asia are experiencing major out-migration: Bangladesh, the Indian
states of Bihar and Rajasthan, and the northern part of India’s Andhra Pradesh; most out-migrants
go to large cities, but migrants from Bangladesh tend to move to rural portions of neighboring Indian
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states, and Nepalese migrants are moving to formerly malaria-infested lowlands along the Indian
border
Agricultural Regions and Activities
D.
1.
Historically, South Asia has been relatively unproductive; since the 1970s, the Green
Revolution (agricultural cultivation techniques based on hybrid crops and the heavy use of industrial
fertilizers and chemical pesticides) has changed this
2.
Crop zones: Crops grown in the South Asia include rice, wheat, oil seeds, coconuts, jute; the
Punjab is India’s breadbasket
3.
The Green Revolution: began in the 1960s, introduced hybrid crops to increase food
production; the Green Revolution has succeeded in increasing food production but some say it has
been an ecological and social failure; Green Revolution practices require large amounts of industrial
fertilizer and frequent pesticide applications that are expensive and polluting; only more prosperous
farmers can afford the new seed strains, irrigation equipment, farm machinery, fertilizers, and
pesticides to support this technology
4.
Future food supply: can there be additional improvements in productivity, or has the Green
Revolution done all it can do? Is genetic engineering a possibility, or is it too dangerous? Additional
irrigation is possible, but salinization (buildup of salts in farm fields) is already a problem, and water
tables are falling
E.
Urban South Asia
1.
Only about 25% live in cities, but this region contains some of the largest cities in the world;
rapid growth of cities has led to problems of homelessness, poverty, congestion, water shortages, air
pollution, sewage disposal problems, and squatter settlements (called bustees in this region)
2.
Mumbai (Bombay), India: largest city in South Asia with 14 million, India’s financial,
industrial, and commercial center, and the major port on the Arabian Sea; this city has enormous
contrasts in wealth and poverty, but the city is relatively orderly and crime-free
3.
Kolkata (Calcutta): population exceeds 12 million; has problems typical of rapidly growing
cities in developing countries: problems with water, sewage, power, flooding during the wet season,
pollution, and congestion; industry is in decline here; Calcutta is culturally vibrant and has fine
schools, theaters, and publishing firms
4.
Karachi, Pakistan, is a port city with 12-18 million people; Karachi was the capital of Pakistan
till 1963; it is Pakistan’s largest urban area and its commercial core; Karachi has serious political and
ethnic tensions that have sometimes been violent
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Cultural Coherence and Diversity: A Common Heritage Undermined by Religious
Rivalries
A.
Historically, South Asia a Well-defined Cultural Region
1.
1,000 years ago, Hinduism united the region; today, religious differences are creating
challenges
2.
Recently there has been a growth in Hindu nationalism; proponents of this movement
promote Hindu values as the essential and exclusive fabric of Indian society; this group now has
considerable power both at the federal level and in many Indian states, through the Bharatiya Janata
Party (BJP); conflicts between this group and Muslims has been an issue
3.
Origins of South Asian Civilizations
B.
1.
Indus Valley (Pakistan), was the site of South Asia’s earliest origins some 5,000 years ago;
newer settlements (around 800 BCE) followed in the Ganges Valley
Hindu civilization: Hinduism is tremendously complicated faith that incorporates diverse
2.
forms of worship and lacks an orthodox creed; Hindus recognize various deities, but all are
manifestations of a single divine entity; Sanskrit is the sacred language of Hinduism; Hindus believe
in the transmigration of souls from being to being through reincarnation; Hinduism has a caste
system (the strict division of society into different hierarchically ranked hereditary groups); recent
research suggests that Hinduism and the caste system emerged through gradual social and cultural
processes
3.
Buddhism: Buddhism challenged the caste system from within, founded by Prince
Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), born in 563 B.C.; Buddha rejected the life of wealth and power
that was his birthright, and sought enlightenment or nirvana (mystical union with the cosmos); he
preached that the path to nirvana was open to anyone, regardless of their social class; Buddhism
spread under the Mauryan Empire of South Asia, but ultimately did not replace Hinduism in India;
Buddhism has expanded through most of East, Southeast, and Central Asia
4.
Arrival of Islam: Arab invaders and later Turkish-speaking Muslims settled in the region and
brought Islam to the region; during the 16th and 17th centuries, India’s Islamic Mughal Empire
dominated; Hindus from the lower castes were especially attracted to Islam, which offered them an
escape from Hinduism’s rigid social order; although the religions are very different, Hindus and
Muslims coexisted amicably until the 20th century
5.
The caste system: the caste system is not uniformly distributed across South Asia, and even
in India today, the caste system is being deemphasized, especially among better educated people;
caste has a Portuguese origin, and combines two distinct local concepts: varna (the ancient fourfold
hierarchy of the Hindu world) and jati (the hundreds of local groups that exist at each varna level);
both varna and jati are hierarchically ordered, but the exact order of precedence is not entirely
straightforward
Islamic fundamentalism is also an issue, especially in Pakistan
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C.
Contemporary Geographies of Religion
1.
Hinduism: 90% of Indians are Hindu (95% in east-central India); fewer than 1% of Pakistanis
are Hindu; Hinduism a minority religion in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka
2.
Islam: Bangladesh and Pakistan are overwhelmingly Muslim; 15% of Indians are Muslim
(about 150 million—more than the total population of any Muslim heartland of Southwest Asia and
North Africa); Muslims are found throughout India; Sri Lanka is about 9% Muslim; Maldives nearly all
Muslim
3.
Sikhism: originated in the late 1400s in the Punjab, near the modern boundary of India and
Pakistan; Sikhism combines elements of Hinduism and Islam; periodic persecution of Sikhs bred
militarism, and they carved a kingdom for themselves in the early 1800s; the Punjab is 60% Sikh; Sikh
men are readily identifiable because they do not cut their hair or beards, and instead wear their hair
wrapped in a turban and often tie their beards close to their faces
4.
Buddhism and Jainism: Among Sri Lanka’s dominant Singhalese people, Theravada Buddhism
has become a virtual national religion; Tibetan Buddhism (or Lamaism) survived as the majority
religion in the high valleys of the Himalayas, and in Bhutan and a portion of Kashmir; Jainism
emerged as a protest against orthodox Hinduism; Jainism stresses nonviolence; because plowing can
kill small creatures, Jains are not permitted to farm; most Jains have turned to trade for their
livelihood, and many have become wealthy and constitute one of the wealthiest groups in India;
Jains are concentrated in northwest India
5.
Other religious groups: Parsis or Zoroastians (concentrated around Mumbai) are very
prosperous; the Parsis arrived as refugees who fled Iran after the arrival of Islam in the seventh
century; Zoroastrianism focuses on the cosmic struggle between good and evil; several of India’s
largest industrial firms are controlled by Parsi families; Indian Christians are more numerous than
either Jains or Parsis; Christianity arrived around 200 A.D.; most are affiliated with the Syrian
Christian Church of Southwest Asia; in Goa, a former Portuguese colony, Roman Catholics and
Hindus each comprise about half the population of this state; there are a small number of Jews in
the region
Geographies of Language
D.
1.
India contains an important linguistic dividing line; north of the line, languages are in the
Indo-European family; south of the line, languages are Dravidian
2.
The Indo-European north: Iranian languages (e.g., Baluchi and Pashtun) are found in western
Pakistan; Indo-Aryan languages are all closely related, and Hindi is the most widely spoken language
of South Asia, with Bengali second; Urdu is the official language of Pakistan
3.
Languages of the south (Dravidian): four main Dravidian languages each have a close
association with specific Indian states (Kannada in Karnataka; Malayalam in Kerala; Telugu in Andhra
Pradesh; Tamil in Tamil Nadu); Singhalese is the dominant language of Sri Lanka
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4.
Linguistic dilemmas: India has 15 official languages (as presented in India’s Constitution,
adopted in 1950); Hindi is spreading through popular media and educational TV; English is the main
integrating language of India, and is widely used in Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka
5.
Linguistic nationalism: linking of a specific language with political goals; could there be a
national language for India?
South Asians in a Global Cultural Context
E.
1.
2.
English also enables South Asians’ cultural works to reach global audience: Rabindranath
Tagore won Nobel Prize for literature in 1930; Salman Rushdie and Vikram Seth became well-known
as authors in 1980s and 1990s; Arundhati Roy (a woman) wrote international best-seller in 1997
3.
Emigration of many South Asians spreading their culture around the world: South Asians
(mostly Pakistanis) migrating to Britain; South Asians (mostly Indians) migrating to the United States
Geopolitical Framework: A Deeply Divided Region
The British Conquest politically united this region in Mid-1800s: any prior unity was cultural;
independence from Britain resulted in separation of Pakistan from India
A.
Widespread use of English facilitates the spread of global culture into the region
B.
South Asia before and after Independence in 1947
1.
British arrived in 1500s, settled on coasts, while the Mughal Empire (Muslims) ruled the
north, and Indians ruled the south; during the 1700s, the Mughals weakened and the Hindu state
became stronger
The British conquest: the British East India Company, a private organization acting as an arm of the
British government, monopolized trade in India and exploited political chaos of the region to stake
out its empire, eventually controlling most of the region
From company control to British colony: the reduction in size of indigenous Indian states, along with
the growing arrogance of British officials, led to an uprising in 1856 across much of South Asia;
Britain crushed the rebellion, and then ruled this region directly; Britain tried to interfere with Nepal
and Bhutan (which nominally were independent), but suffered defeat at the hands of the Afghans,
who retained their independence
Independence and partition, 1947: independence movements began in the region in the 1920s;
Britain withdrew from South Asia in 1947; The father figure of India favored a single unified state at
this point, but Muslim leaders argued for two new countries (Hindu-majority India, and Muslim-
majority Pakistan); the two-country partition won out; mass migrations and many deaths followed
the partitioning; Pakistan has remained relatively unstable politically, and allowed almost full
autonomy to the Pashtun tribes in the northwest; this region lent much support to Osama bin
Laden’s al-Qaeda organization
Geopolitical structure of India: India is organized as a federal state, with significant power vested in
individual states; Indian states organized according to linguistic geography, but only the largest
ethnic groups had their own states; smaller groups are also pushing for their own states
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