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AIDS - The name of the late stages of HIV infection, defined by a
specified reduction of T cells and the appearance of characteristic secondary
infections.
B cell receptors-The antigen receptor on B cells: a Y-shaped, membrane-bound
molecule consisting of two identical heavy chains and two identical light
chains linked by disulfide bridges and containing two antigen-binding sites;
also called a membrane immunoglobulin or membrane antibody.
B cells -A type of lymphocyte that develops to maturity in the bone marrow.
After encountering antigen, B cells differentiate into antibody-secreting
plasma cells, the effector cells of humoral immunity.
CD4 -A surface protein, present on most helper T cells, that binds to
class II MHC molecules on antigen-presenting cells, enhancing the interaction
between the T cell and the antigen-presenting cell.
CD8-A surface protein, present on most cytotoxic cells, that binds to
class I MHC molecules on target cells, enhancing the interaction between the T
cell and the target cell.
HIV -The infectious agent that causes AIDS. HIV is a retrovirus.
MHC -A family of genes that encode a large set of cell surface proteins
called MHC molecules. Class I and class II MHC molecules function in antigen
presentation to T cells. Foreign MHC molecules on transplanted tissue can
trigger T cell responses that may lead to rejection of the transplant.
T cell receptors -The antigen receptor on T cells; a membrane-bound molecule
consisting of one ? chain and one ? chain linked by a disulfide bridge and
containing one antigen-binding site.
T cells -A type of lymphocyte, including the helper T cells and cytotoxic T
cells, that develops to maturity in the thymus. After encountering antigen, T
cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity.
acquired immunity -The kind of defense that is mediated by B lymphocytes (B cells)
and T lymphocytes (T cells). It exhibits specificity, memory, and self-nonself
recognition. Also called adoptive immunity.
active immunity -Long-lasting immunity conferred by the action of a person’s B
cells and T cells and the resulting B and T memory cells specific for a
pathogn. Active immunity can develop as a result of natural infection or
immunization.
anaphylactic
shock -An acute, whole-body, life-threatening, allergic response.
antibodies -A protein secreted by plasma cells (differentiated B cells) that
binds to a particular antigen and marks it for elimination; also called
immunoglobulin. All antibody molecules have the same Y-shaped structure and in
their monomer form consist of two identical heavy chains and two identical
light chains joined by disulfide bridges.
antigen -A macromolecule that elicits an immune response by lymphocytes.
antigen presentation
-The process by which an MHC
molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it
to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell.
antigen receptors -The general term for a surface protein, located on B cells and T
cells, that binds to antigens, initiating acquired immune responses. The
antigen receptors on B cells are called B cell receptors (or membrane
immunoglobulins), and the antigen receptors on T cells are called T cell
receptors.
autoimmune diseases -An immunological disorder in which the immune system turns against
self.
cell mediated immune
response -The branch of acquired
immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend
against infected cells, cancer cells, and transplanted cells.
chemokines -Any of about 50 different proteins, secreted by many cell types
near a site of injury or infection, that help direct migration of white blood
cells to an injury site and induces other changes central to inflammation.
clonal selection -The process by which an antigen selectively binds to and activates
only those lymphocytes bearing receptors specific for the antigen. The selected
lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells and a
clone of memory cells specific for the stimulating antigen. Clonal selection
accounts for the specificity and memory of acquired immune responses.
complement system -A group of about 30 blood proteins that may amplify the
inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse pathogens. The
complement system is activated in a cascade initiated by surface antigens on
microorganisms or by antigen-antibody complexes.
cytokines -Any of a group of proteins secreted by a number of cell types,
including macrophages and helper T cells, that regulate the function of lymphocytes
and other cells of the immune system.
dendritic cells -An antigen-presenting cell, located mainly in lymphatic tissues
and skin, that is particularly efficient in presenting antigens to naive helper
T cells, thereby initiating a primary immune response.
effector cells -A muscle cell or gland cell that performs the body’s responses to
stimuli; responds to signals from the brain or other processing center of the
nervous system.
eosinphils -A type of white blood cell with low phagocytic activity that is
thought to play a role in defense against parasitic worms by releasing enzymes
toxic to these invaders.
epitope -A small, accessible region of an antigen to which an antigen
receptor or antibody binds; also called an antigenic determinant.
graft versus host
reaction-An attack against a
patient’s body cells by lymphocytes received in a bone marrow transplant.
heavy chains -One of the two types of polypeptide chains that make up an
antibody molecule and B cell receptor; consists of a variable region, which
contributes to the antigen-binding site, and a constant region.
helper T cell -A type of T cell that, when activated, secretes cytokines that
promote the response of B cells (humoral response) and cytotonic T cells
(cell-mediated response) to antigens.
histamine-A substance released by mast cells that causes blood vessels to
dilate and become more permeable during an inflammatory response.
humoral immune
response -The branch of acquired
immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the
production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body
fluids.
immunization -The process of generating a state of immunity by artifical means.
In active immunization, a nonpathogenic version of a normally pathogenic
microbe is administered, inducing B and T cell responses and immunological
memory. In passive immunization, antibodies specific for a particular microbe
are administered, conferring immediate but temporary protection. Also called
vaccination.
immunoglobins -Any of the class of proteins that function as antibodies.
Immunoglobulins are divided into five major classes that differ in their
distribution in the body and antigen disposal activities.
inflammatory response
-A localized innate immune defense
triggered by physical injury or infection of tissue in which changes to nearby
small blood vessels enhance the infiltration of white blood cells,
antimicrobial proteins, and clotting elements that aid in tissue repair and
destruction of invading pathogens; may also involve systemic effects such as
fever and increased production of white blood cells.
innate immunity -The kind of defense that is mediated by phagocytic cells,
antimicrobial proteins, the inflammatory response, and natural killer (NK)
cells. It is present before exposure to pathogens and is effective from the
time of birth.
interferon -A protein that has antiviral or immune regulatory functions.
Interferon ? and interferon-??, secreted by virus-infected cells, help nearby
cells resist viral infection; interferon - secreted by T cells, helps activate
macrophages.
light chains -One of the two types of polypeptide chains that make up an
antibody molecule and B cell receptor; consists of a variable region, which
contributes to the antigen-binding site, and a constant region.
lymphocytes -A type of white blood cell that mediates acquired immunity.
Lymphocytes that complete their development in the bone marrow are called B
cells, and those that mature in the thymus are called T cells.
lysozyme -An enzyme in sweat, tears, and saliva that attacks bacterial cell
walls.
macrophages-A phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in innate
immunity by destroying microbes and in acquired immunity as an
antigen-presenting cell.
mast cells-A vertebrate body cell that produces histamine and other molecules
that trigger the inflammatory response.
membrane attack
complex-A molecular complex
consisting of a set of complement proteins that forms a pore in the membrane of
bacterial and transplanted cells, causing the cells to die by lysis.
memory cells -One of a clone of long-lived lymphocytes, formed during the
primary immune response, that remains in a lymphoid organ until activated by
exposure to the same antigen that triggered its formation. Activated memory
cells mount the secondary immune response.
monoclonal antibodies
-Any of a preparation of
antibodies that have been produced by a single clone of cultured cells and thus
are all specific for the same epitope.
monocytes-A type of white blood cell that migrates into tissues and develops
into a macrophage.
natural killer cells
-A type of white blood cell that
can kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells; an important component of innate
immunity.
netrophils-The most abundant type of white blood cell. Neutrophils are
phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting
their life span to a few days.
passive immunity -Short-term immunity conferred by the administration of ready-made
antibodies or the transfer of maternal antibodies to a fetus or nursing infant;
lasts only a few weeks or months because the immune system has not been
stimulated by antigens.
phagocytosis-A type of endocytosis involving large, particulate substances,
accomplished mainly by macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells.
plasma cells -The antibody-secreting effector cell of humoral immunity; arises
from antigen-stimulated B cells.
primary immune
response -The initial acquired
immune response to an antigen, which appears after a lag of about 10 to 17
days.
secondary immune response
-The acquired immune response
elicited on second or subsequent exposures to a particular antigen. The
secondary immune response is more rapid, of greater magnitude, and of longer
duration than the primary immune response.
thymus-A small organ in the thoracic cavity of vertebrates where
maturation of T cells is completed.
vaccination-See immunization.
ANF - A peptide hormone that opposes the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
system (RAAS).
JGA- A specialized tissue located near the afferent arteriole that
supplies blood to the glomerulus.
RAAS - A part of a complex feedback circuit that normally partners with
antidiuretic hormone in osmoregulation.
afferent arteriole -The blood vessel supplying a nephron.
aldosterone -An adrenal hormone that acts on the distal tubules of the kidney
to stimulate the reabsorption of sodium (Na+) and the passive flow
of water from the filtrate.
ammonia -A small, very toxic molecule made up of three hydrogen atoms and
one nitrogen atom; produced by nitrogen fixation and as a metabolic waste
product of protein and nucleic acid metabolism.
angiotensin II -A hormone that stimulates constriction of precapillary arterioles
and increases reabsorption of NaCl and water by the proximal tubules of the
kidney, increasing blood pressure and volume.
anhydrobiosis -The ability to survive in a dormant state when an organism’s
habitat dries up; also called cryptobiosis.
antideuritic hormone
-A hormone produced in the
hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary. It promotes water
rentention by the kidneys as part of an elaborate feedback scheme that helps
regulate the osmolarity of the blood.
bowmans capsule -A cup-shaped receptacle in the vertebrate kidney that is the
initial, expanded segment of the nephron where filtrate enters from the blood.
collecting duct -The location in the kidney where filtrate from renal tubules is
collected; the filtrate is now called urine.
coritical nephrons - Nephrons located almost entirely in the renal cortex. These
nephrons have a reduced loop of Henle.
countercurrent
multiplier systems - A
countercurrent system in which energy is expended in active transport to
facilitate exchange of materials and create concentration gradients. For
example, the loop of Henle actively transports NaCl from the filtrate in the
upper part of the ascending limb of the loop, making the urine-concentrating
function of the kidney more effective.
distal tubule - In the vertebrate kidney, the portion of a nephron that helps
refine filtrate and empties it into a collecting duct.
efferent arteriole - The blood vessel draining a nephron.
euryhaline - Referring to organisms that can tolerate substantial changes in
external osmolarity.
excretion - The disposal of nitrogen-containing waste products of metabolism.
filtrate - Fluid extracted by the excretory system from the blood or body
cavity. The excretory system produces urine from the filtrate after extracting
valuable solutes from it and concentrating it.
filtration - In the vertebrate kidney, the extraction of water and small
solutes, including metabolic wastes, from the blood by the nephrons.
glomerulus - A ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman’s capsule in the nephron
and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.
juxtamedullary
nephrons - Nephrons with
well-developed loops of Henle that extend deeply into the renal medulla.
loop of henle - The long hairpin turn, with a descending and ascending limb, of
the renal tubule in the vertebrate kidney; functions in water and salt
reabsorption.
malpighian tubules - A unique excretory organ of insects that empties into the
digestive tract, removes nitrogenous wastes from the blood, and functions in
osmoregulation.
metanephridia - (plural, metanephridia) In annelid worms, a type
of excretory tubule with internal openings called nephrostomes that collect
body fluids and external openings called nephridiopores.
nephron - The tubular excretory unit of the vertebrate kidney.
osmoconformer - An animal that does not actively adjust its internal osmolarity
because it is isotonic with its environment.
osmolarity - Solute concentration expressed as molarity.
osmoregulation - The regulation of solute and water concentrations in body fluids
by organisms living in hyperosmotic, hypoosmotic, and terrestrial environments.
osmoregulator - An animal whose body fluids have a different osmolarity than the
environment and that must either discharge excess water if it lives in a
hypotonic environment or take in water if it inhabits a hypertonic environment.
peritubular
cappillaries - The
network of tiny blood vessels that surrounds the proximal and distal tubules in
the kidney.
protonephridium - An excretory system, such as the flame-cell system of flatworms,
consisting of a network of closed tubules having external openings called
nephridiopores and lacking internal openings.
proximal tubule - In the vertebrate kidney, the portion of a nephron immediately
downstream from Bowman’s capsule that conveys and helps refine filtrate.
renal artery - The blood vessel bringing blood to the kidney.
renal cortex - The outer portion of the vertebrate kidney.
renal medulla - The inner portion of the vertebrate kidney, beneath the renal
cortex.
renal pelvis - Funnel-shaped chamber that receives processed filtrate from the
vertebrate kidney’s collecting ducts and is drained by the ureter.
renal vein - The blood vessel draining the kidney.
secretion - (1) The discharge of molecules synthesized by a cell. (2) In the
vertebrate kidney, the discharge of wastes from the blood into the filtrate
from the nephron tubules.
selective
reabsorption - The
selective uptake of solutes from a filtrate of blood, coelomic fluid, or
hemolymph in the excretory organs of animals.
stenohaline - Referring to organisms that cannot tolerate substantial changes
in external osmolarity.
transport epithelium
- One or more layers of
specialized epithelial cells that regulate solute movements.
urea - A soluble nitrogenous waste excreted by mammals, most adult
amphibians, and many marine fishes and turtles; produced in the liver by a
metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide.
ureter - A duct leading from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
urethra - A tube that releases urine from the body near the vagina in
females and through the penis in males; also serves in males as the exit tube
for the reproductive system.
uric acid - An insoluble precipitate of nitrogenous waste excreted by land
snails, insects, birds, and some reptiles.
urinary bladder - The pouch where urine is stored prior to elimination.
vasa recta - The capillary system that serves the loop of Henle.
If you have any test reviews, homeworks, guides, anything school related that you think can be posted on this website, reach out to me at makingschooleasier@gmail.com
If you have any test reviews, homeworks, guides, anything school related that you think can be posted on this website, reach out to me at makingschooleasier@gmail.com